Developmental Psychology Final Notes PDF

Prelim 7. Middle Adulthood ages 40 to 65 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION TO DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 8. Late Adulthood...

Prelim 7. Middle Adulthood ages 40 to 65 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION TO DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 8. Late Adulthood ages 65 to death Psychology is the study of biological behaviors (both overt and covert). KEY ISSUES IN STUDYING HUMAN DEVELOPMENT Development -systematic changes across the lifespan of an individual. Developmental Psychology – study of behavior about the systematic changes I. Nature vs Nurture debate across the lifespan of an individual. - the debate about the relative contributions of biological processes and experiential/ environmental factors to development. DOMAINS OF DEVELOPMENT Ex: Nature ---Naya is 5’11” tall just like her parents and siblings (genetics/ 1. Physical Development biological) -includes changes in the size, shape, and characteristics of the body. Nurture ---Naya is 5’11” because of proper nutrition and exercise 2. Cognitive Development (environment factors) -changes in the thinking, memory, problem-solving, and other intellectual skills. II. Continuity vs Discontinuity debate 3. Social-Emotional Development debate that concerns whether the development of an individual is a smooth -changes in the awareness and management of emotions, interactions with progression throughout the life span or series of abrupt shifts. others and personality formation. Smooth changes Ex: ATTRIBUTES OF DEVELOPMENT Continuity ---Kai started with cooing, to babblings, to single word, to full sentences. -there is a quantitative change (degree) / difference. It has a gradual 1. Development is holistic. development. Holistic -the domains are interrelated with each other. Discontinuity ---Kai is an adolescent. 2. Development involves plasticity. -there is a qualitative change / difference Plasticity -can be modified or changed if an individual is exposed to a new -abrupt changes environment / experience. o Quantitative change – change in amount. Ex: children getting STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT taller as they get older. 1. Prenatal Period conception to birth o Qualitative change – change in the characteristic, kind, or 2. Infancy and Toddlerhood birth to 3 yo. type. Ex: puberty 3. Early Childhood ages 3 to 6 Critical Period – a specific period in development when an organism is especially 4. Middle Childhood ages 6 to 12 sensitive to the presence / absence of some particular kind of experience. 5. Adolescence ages 12 to 20 Early ages 12 to 14 Sensitive Period -a span of months/ years during which a child may be particularly Middle ages 15 to 17 responsive to specific forms of experience/ particularly influenced by their absence. Late ages 18 to 20 6. Early Adulthood ages 20 to 40 Emerging adulthood (early 20s) Chapter 2 : Conception and Genetics - The Beginning of Life Basics: Genetics -study of genes and heredity. Heredity -sum of all biological processes by which a particular characteristics are passed on from parents to their offspring. Biological Psychology -study of the biological mechanisms of behavior and mental processes. Ovum (egg cell) – a gamete / female reproductive sex cell o Nucleus -where genetic information is PICOS -over production of the male hormone, Androgen. situated. Note: o Cytoplasm ❖ Egg cells only stay in the fallopian tube for 24 hours. o Zona pellucida -outer membrane of the ❖ Sperm cells only stay in the fallopian tube for 3-5 days. ovum Conception / Fertilization – when the sperm and the ovum unite. o Corona Radiata -nutrient supplier Zygote – the fertilized cell that results from the union of an ovum and a sperm. Note: At birth, we have 500,000 to 1 million of ovum per ovary. By puberty, however, only 300,000 Sperm Motility – capacity of sperm to move efficiently. are left. Chemoattractant – chemical ”breadcrumbs” produced by the egg cell to attract or select a specific sperm cell. Sperm – a male reproductive sex cell. It looks like a tad pole. The head contains genetic materials and its tail is for movement. CHALLENGES OF THE SPERM BEFORE CONCEPTION : Note: During ejaculation, 80 million to 300 million of sperms are produced. These are the challenges a sperm must conquer in order to reach the egg cell in the Male Infertility – if a man has less than 39 million sperm count. fallopian tube. Also, the main reason why millions of sperms die along the way: 1. Die in an acidic environment. Ovulation – meet-up of the egg cell and the sperm cell. 2. The female’s immune system destroys sperm. -time when the mature egg is released to the fallopian tube to meet the 3. The movement of cilia. sperm cell. 4. The fluid flows in the opposite direction of the sperm. Menstruation – the disintegration of the lining of the uterus. 5. Choosing the wrong fallopian tube to swim at. -The Menstrual Cycle MECHANISMS OF HEREDITY A. 1-7 days Menstruation (least fertile stage) I. Requisite 1: Chromosomes B. 8-9 days Possible to conceive -threadlike structures of nucleic acid and protein found in the nucleus of each C. 10-14 days Most Fertile (especially at day 14) cell. D. 15-16 days Possible to conceive -there are 23 pairs of chromosomes, 46 in total. E. 17-28 days Less fertile (unlikely to conceive) Autosomes – numbered chromosomes Sex Chromosomes – sex chromosomes  XX – for females Mitochondrial DNA -DNAs found in the mitochondria; they have a total of 37 XY – for males chromosomes. 20,000 – 25,000 genes GENE EXPRESSION 1. TRANSCRIPTION -The genetic code stored in the DNA is copied to a similar - approximate number of molecule called RNA (ribonucleic acid) in the cell of the nucleus. genes in humans. 2. The messenger RNA carries the information from the DNA out of the nucleus into the cytoplasm. 3. TRANSLATION -The messenger RNA with a specialized molecular machine called ribosome, which reads the sequence of messenger RNA nucleotides. -Each sequence of three nucleotides, called a codon, usually codes for one particular amino acid. 4. The transfer RNA assembles the protein using one amino acid at a time. 5. Protein assembly continues until the ribosome/ encounters a ”stop” codon. o Codon – 3 nucleotides. II. Requisite 2: Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) -molecule that carries genetic information for the development and functioning o Stop Codons – TAA, TAG, TGA of an organism. o Amino acids – building blocks of protein. There are 20 amino acids. Genome – a complete set of DNA / genes PROTEINS III. Requisite 3: Chemical Bases -There are 4 nitrogenous bases for DNA: 1. Adenine 2. Cytosine 3. Guanine 4. Thymine -There are 4 nitrogenous bases for RNA: 1. Adenine 2. Cytosine 3. Guanine 4. Uracil Note: Adenine and Thymine/Uracil always bind, and Guanine and Cytosine always bind together. IV. Requisite 4: Gene -the sequence of bases in a portion of a DNA molecule that carries instructions needed to assemble a protein. -We have 20 thousand to 25 thousand genes Gene Variant – a change in a gene GENES -there are 16,500 base pairs in mitochondria. Genotype – set of genes that make up a person’s heredity. 6. Multifactorial Inheritance -a pattern in which heredity (genotype) and environment interact to bring about Phenotype – an individual’s observable physical, behavioral, and psychological a phenotype. traits. -environment can affect genetic expression For example: -genes can influence the kind of environment to which a person is exposed. Genotype curly hair and straight hair | Blood O and Blood B o Niche-picking – deliberately searching for an environment that fits our heredity. Phenotype curly hair | Blood B -environmental influences typically make children within a family different. Allele – type of gene / different variation of genes. GENE VARIANT – a permanent change in the DNA sequence that makes up a gene. It Homozygous genotype – having inherited the same version or allele of a gene could be hereditary, or from the environment, medicine, etc. It could also affect the from each biological parent. health and development of the individual. NOT all gene variants affect disorders. Heterozygous genotype – having inherited different versions or alleles of a gene from each biological parent. Kinds of Gene Variants: 1. Missense variant (Substitution) WAYS GENOTYPES INFLUENCE PHENOTYPES -there is incorrect amino acid code, which may produce a malfunctioning protein. 1. Dominant-recessive pattern 2. Nonsense variant (Substitution) Complete dominance -a pattern of inheritance in which a single -there are incorrect sequence causes of shortening of protein. dominant allele is enough to influence a phenotype. 3. Insertion -but two recessive alleles are necessary to produce an associated trait. -insertion of a single nucleotide in the amino acid sequence. 4. Deletion Dominant allele is a variation of a gene that will produce a phenotype -deletion of a single nucleotide. even if only one copy of it is inherited. (needs only one copy to be 5. Duplication inherited) -a section of DNA is duplicated. Recessive allele is a variation of a gene that will produce a phenotype 6. Repeat Expansion only if it is inherited from both parents. -repeated trinucleotide adds a string of other amino acids to the proteins. 2. Codominance GENETIC DISORDERS / CONDITIONS -a pattern of which two alleles of the same gene are both expressed in an 1. Autosomal dominant disorder individual. -one altered copy of the gene in each cell is sufficient for a person to exhibit a Ex: Blood Type AB genetic condition. 3. Incomplete Dominance a) Huntington disease – progressive brain disorder that causes -a pattern of inheritance in which the dominant allele is only partially expressed. Ex: skin color (Morena skin) , wavy hair uncontrolled movements, emotional problems, and loss of thinking 4. Polygenic Inheritance ability. -a pattern of inheritance in which many genes combine to form a phenotype b) Blue-yellow color vision/ defects – problems with differentiating 5. Mitochondrial Inheritance shades of blue and green and causes difficulty distinguishing dark blue -a pattern of inheritance in which the genes that produce a phenotype are from black. carried in the mitochondria.  c) Familial hemiplegic migraine – severe migraines, and episodes of fever, 6. Mitochondrial disorder seizures, prolonged weakness, coma, memory loss, difficulty with A disorder caused by variants in mitochondrial DNA. speech, confusions, and drowsiness. a) Leber hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) -blurring and clouding of vision, which may lead to severe loss of visual acuity and color vision. 2. Autosomal recessive disorder Chromosomal Error – a disorder characterized by an extra or missing - two copies of the gene variant are needed for an offspring to develop a chromosome. It may occur during the formation of gametes, in early fetal disorder. development, or in any cell after birth. a) Phenylketonuria – characterized by harmful levels of phenylalanine, Trisomy 21 (Down Syndrome) – a disorder associated with intellectual disability, leading to brain damage. a distinct facial appearance, weak muscle tone, small ears, a short neck, small b) Cystic fibrosis – progressive damage to the respiratory system. hands and feet, and an increased risk of developing several medical conditions. c) Sickle cell disease – low number of RBC or anemia, repeated infections, Turner Syndrome (XO) – affects females; one copy of the X chromosome is yellowing of the eyes and skin, periods of pain. missing or altered. Features include a short stature, reduced functioning of the d) Tay-Sachs disease – neurological problems, muscles used for ovaries, egg cells die prematurely, absence of puberty. movements are weak, involuntary muscle twitching, etc. Klinefelter Syndrome (47, XXY) – affects males; characterized by small testes, reduced amount of testosterone, delayed or incomplete puberty, breast 3. X-linked dominant disorder enlargement, decreased muscle mass and bone density, a reduced amount of A disorder caused by a variant in one copy of the gene on the X chromosome. facial and body hair and infertility. a) Fragile X syndrome -include learning disabilities (delayed speech by age Triploidy – when there are XXX or XYY or XXY 2), cognitive impairment, anxiety, hyperactive behavior, a long and narrow face, large ears, flat feet and enlarged testicles after Chapter 3: Prenatal Stage of Development/ Gestation puberty. (conception to 9 months) b) X-linked chondrodysplasia punctata 2 – spots near end of bones, Gestation has 3 substages: shortening of bones in the upper arms and thighs, scaly patches of 1. Germinal (Zygotic) Stage - from 0 to 14 days skins, and eye abnormalities. 2. Embryonic Stage - from 3 to 8 weeks 3. Fetal Stage - from 37 to 42 weeks 4. X-linked recessive disorder A disorder cause by a variant in one copy of the gene on the X chromosome for I. GERMINAL / ZYGOTIC STAGE males, but two copies of the mutated gene for females. -stage where multiple pregnancy happens. a) Hemophilia – a bleeding disorder that slows the blood clotting process. Conception – the moment of fertilization, when sperm penetrates an ovum, forming a b) Red-green color blindness -having trouble distinguishing between zygote. shades of red, yellow, and green. 5. Y-linked disorder Has 3 stages: A disorder caused by an altered gene located on the Y chromosome. Mitosis a) Y chromosome infertility – difficulty in fathering children; may o Cleavage – early mitotic division / stage where the egg cytoplasm is produce no mature sperm cell (azoospermia), fewer than the usual no. divided into smaller units. of sperm cells (oligospermia). o Morula – a cell that has 16 to 32 cells within 72 hours.  Blastulation – when a morula becomes a blastocyst. Other types of multiple pregnancy: o Blastocyst – name given to the ball of cells formed when the fertilized egg begins 1. Sesquizygotic (semi-identical) to divide. Came from one egg cell but two sperm cell from the same father. a. Embryoblast – found inside and becomes the embryo. It contains 2. Superfetation an embryonic disk. Conceiving again while being pregnant. b. Trophoblast – outer layer and becomes the placenta. 3. Heteropaternal superfecundation Implantation – the burrowing of the blastocyst into the endometrium (lining) Came from 2 egg cell of the same mother and 2 different sperm cell from 2 of the uterus. different fathers. Trivia: Valentina and Feodor Vassilyev had 69 children – 16 pairs of twins, 7 sets of triplets, and 4 sets of quadruplets, a total of 27 births. RISK FACTORS FOR MULTIPLE BIRTHS 1. Age of mother 2. Fertility drugs 3. Heredity 4. In vitro fertilization PRINCIPLES OF GROWTH Cephalocaudal principle – growth that proceeds from head to toe. Proximodistal principle – growth that proceeds from center to body outward. II. EMBRYONIC STAGE (3 to 8 weeks) During this period, all major organs and anatomical structures take shape. Ectopic Pregnancy – occurs when a fertilized egg grows in the fallopian tube instead of Uterus – womb or house of the fetus the uterus. Amnion – watertight membrane that surrounds the developing embryo, serving to regulate its temperature and serve as cushion against injuries. MULTIPLE PREGNANCY / BIRTHS Amniotic fluid – fluid found inside amnion. Monozygotic Pregnancy Placenta – organ that provides the nutrients, oxygen, respiration to the unborn -other term for identical twins child. It is the unborn child’s source of nutrition by week 10 (fetal stage) -came from the same egg cell and sperm cell. Yolk Sac – source of nutrition in the embryonic stage. Multizygotic pregnancy -came from 2 egg cell of the same mother. Umbilical cord – a soft tube containing blood vessels that connects the embryo to the placenta.  EMBRYONIC STAGE MILESTONES Week 3 Cells are starting to specialize neural tube swells to form the brain; spots that will become the Week 4 eyes appear; backbone and ribs become visible; muscle cells move into place; face starts to take shape; endocrine system begins to develop embryo is about ¼ inch long; arms and legs are developing Week 5 rapidly; five fingers are visible; eyes have corneas and lenses; lungs start to develop; heart begins to beat; inner ears begin to form; liver, pancreas, spleen, and gallbladder start to form brain begins to produce electrical activity and moves in response to stimuli; neural tube closes and separates into the forebrain, Week 6 midbrain, and hindbrain, neurons and synapses begin to develop in the spinal cord; leg buds form; kidney and stomach start to form embryo is about 10mm long and begins to move spontaneously; GERM LAYERS limbs are fully developed; skeletons are visible; bones beginning The embryoblast contains the embryonic disk, which has 3 layers: Week 7 to harden; muscles are maturing; maintains a semi-upright 1. Ectoderm – epidermis, hair, and nervous system position; ears are completely formed; umbilical cord is fully 2. Mesoderm – systems of the body except digestive and respiratory formed systems embryo is about 1 inch long; liver and spleen begin to function; 3. Endoderm - digestive system and respiratory system Week 8 organs make and filter blood cells; heart is well developed and pumps blood; digestive and urinary systems are functioning; Organogenesis – organs are complete. It happens in Week 8. III. FETAL STAGE (9 -38 weeks) Influences on Prenatal Development 1. Mother’s Diet fingerprints; grasping reflex; facial expressions; -two important nutrients for mothers: Weeks 9 - 12 swallowing and rhythmic ”breathing” of amniotic fluid; a. Folic acid – if the mother lacks folic acid, it will lead to spina bifida. urination; genitalia appear; alternating periods of Folic acid – B-complex vitamin that helps prevent defects of physical activity and rest the Central Nervous System. hair follicles; responds to mother’s voice and loud Spina Bifida – a bulging of the spinal cord through a gap in Weeks 13 - 16 noises; 8–10 inches long; weighs 6 ounces the spinal column. fetal movements felt by mother; heartbeat detectable b. calcium with stethoscope; lanugo (hair) covers body; eyes Weeks 17 - 20 respond to light introduced into the womb; eyebrows; 2. Mother’s age fingernails, 12 inches long; sex may be identified by o Ages 20-30 years old – ideal marrying age and pregnancy ultrasound 3. Maternal emotions vernix (oily substance) protects skin; lungs produce 4. Support for the mother Weeks 21 - 24 surfactant (vital to respiratory function); viability becomes possible, although most born now do not survive Teratogen – external substances that may harm or have an adverse effects on the recognition of mother’s voice; regular periods of rest growth and development of the fetus. Weeks 25 - 28 and activity; 14–15 inches long; weighs 2 pounds; good -it has 3 classifications: chance of survival if born now 1. Drugs 2. Maternal Diseases very rapid growth; antibodies acquired from mother; 3. Environmental Hazards Weeks 29 - 32 fat deposited under skin; 16-17 inches long; weighs four pounds; excellent chance of survival if delivered now movement to head-down position for birth; lungs o Fetal Alcohol Syndrome – characterized by having small head, small eye-opening, low mature; 18 inches long; weighs 5-6 pounds, virtually 100 nasal bridge, flat midface, smooth philtrum (cupid’s bow), thin upper lip. Weeks 33 - 36 percent chance of survival; can distinguish between familiar and novel stimuli Psychoactive Drugs Potential consequences full-term status; 19-21 inches long; weighs 6-9 pounds Alcohol Fetal alcohol syndrome, cognitive deficits, heart Weeks 37 - 38 damage, retarded growth Viability – ability of fetus to survive outside the uterus. By week 22. Aspirin Deficits in intelligence, attention, and motor skills Fetus – name given to the prenatal organism from 9 th week till birth. Caffeine Lower birth weight, decreased muscle tone Cocaine and Heroin Retarded growth, irritability in newborns Preterm – giving birth before 37 weeks, having a premature baby. Marijuana Lower birth weight, less motor control Early term – before 36 weeks Nicotine Retarded growth, possible cognitive impairments Full term – giving birth within 37-38 weeks. Tobacco Learning problems, antisocial behavior Late term – within 39 – 41 weeks Inhalants Premature labor, problems similar to those of fetal alcohol syndrome Post term – beyond 42 weeks  Prescription Drug Potential consequences Environmental Hazards Accutane / Vitamin A Facial, ear, heart deformities Streptomycin Deafness Diseases Potential Consequences Penicillin Skin disorders Air pollution Low birth weight, premature birth, lower Tetracycline Tooth deformities test scores Diet pills Low birth weight Lead Mental retardation Limb malformations, facial paralysis, sight, and Mercury Retarded growth, mental retardation, Thalidomide hearing loss cerebral palsy PCBs ( Polychlorinated biphenyls) Impaired memory and verbal skills Thalidomide – a compound that was developed in the 1950s by the West German X-rays Retarded growth, leukemia, mental pharmaceutical company that was originally intended as a sedative or tranquilizer but retardation was soon used for treating a wide range of other conditions, including nausea and Arsenic Low birth weight, fetal loss morning sickness in pregnant people. Decreased head circumference, low birth Cadmium weight, decrease in female and male sex Maternal Diseases hormones Anesthetic gases Miscarriage, premature birth, low birth Diseases Potential Consequences weight Frequent infections, neurological Solvents Fetal malformations AIDS disorders, death Parasite-bearing substances Miscarriage, pre-term labor Chlamydia Premature birth, low birth weight, eye inflammation Parasites – people (especially pregnant women) can get a disease by eating raw or Chicken Pox Spontaneous abortion, developmental undercooked meat from animals. delays, mental retardation Cytomegalovirus Deafness, blindness, abnormally small head, mental retardation Genital Herpes Encephalitis, enlarged spleen, improper blood clotting Rubella (German measles) Mental retardation, damage to eyes, ears, and heart Syphilis Damage to the central nervous system, teeth, bones Toxoplasmosis Damage to the eyes and brain, learning disabilities, spinal abnormalities Tuberculosis Pneumonia Hepatitis B Hepatitis Parvovirus Anemia Note about table above: those in red are the critical periods for the baby’s development. STAGES OF LABOR I. Stage 1. Dilation and Effacement Critical periods – time damage is most likely to occur (weeks 3-16) Dilation – opening of the cervix (must be 10 cm for childbirth) EDD (Expected Date of Delivery) = (first day of LMP + 7 days + 9 months) Effacement – thinning of the cervix. LMP (Last Menstrual Period) a. Early / Latent Phase – dilation is about 2cm and contractions bearable. Toxoplasma gondii – causes toxoplasmosis that came from cat’s feces. b. Active phase – dilation about 3-8cm and contraction intervals are 8-10 mins and 30sec to 1 mins long. LABOR AND DELIVERY c. Transition phase – dilation is about 8cm to 10 cm and ready to give -types of delivery: birth. 1. Vaginal Delivery Braxton Hicks Contraction – ”fake birth” -normal delivery or natural childbirth. Oxytocin – hormone produced by the pituitary gland that is important, and for a. Induced vaginal delivery – 32 weeks and you’re still not contracting. lactation. 2. Assisted Vaginal delivery II. Stage 2. Delivery of the baby -using forceps -using vacuum extractor Crowning – the head of the baby can be seen. Episiotomy – making a small cut in the vagina and cervix. 3. Cesarian section -reasons for C-section to occur: III. Stage 3. Afterbirth History of C-section delivery -delivery of the placenta Multiple births Vernix caseosa – white plastic-like enveloping the baby after birth. Placenta previa APGAR score / test – Appearance, Pulse, Grimace, Activity Level, Respiratory Breech birth – the position of the baby is feet first or buttocks first effort. -A test is implemented immediately to a newborn after delivery. Shoulder presentation -a quick assessment of the newborn’s heart rate, respiration, color, muscle Fetal macrosomia – shoulder first tone, and reflexes that is used to gauge perinatal stress and to determine Uterine fibroid – a non-cancerous tumor in uterus whether a neonate requires immediate medical assistance. Labor is not progressing - to be taken 1 min after birth, then taken again after 5 minutes. Umbilical cord prolapses Neonate – term for newborn ( 0 to 28 days) Note: Neonates sleeps 16-18 hours a day Placental abruption NBAS (Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale) Hemorrhage a. Autonomic Preeclampsia b. Motor Fetal distress c. State d. Social  NBAS - A test that assesses a neonate’s neurological integrity and Sibling rivalry – the spirit of competition, jealousy, and resentment that responsiveness to environmental stimuli. may arise between two or more siblings. Potential Problems at Birth INFANCY: Physical development 1. Respiratory Distress Syndrome ▪ Tabula rasa – ”empty slate” -when a child is 6 weeks early and needs medical facilities to breathe. 2. Anoxia ▪ Reflexes – involuntary / automatic behaviors. It has 2 major types: -oxygen deprivation during delivery 1. Survival / Adaptive Reflex 3. Rh factor incompatibility - Necessary for satisfaction and basic needs. It has a clear adaptive value. -Rh factor is a blood protein that, when present in a fetus but not the mother, - Permanent can cause the mother to produce antibodies. a. Breathing reflex – repetitive inhalation and expiration. ▪ Rhogam vaccine – a vaccine to prevent mother’s RBC from producing b. Eye-blink reflex – closing or blinking of the eyes. antibodies. c. Pupillary reflex – constriction of pupils to bright light; dilation of pupils to dark or dimly lit surroundings. 4. Cranial bleeding and brain damage due to assisted vaginal delivery. d. Rooting reflex bottle – turning the head in the direction of a tactile 5. Low Birth Weight (less than 2500g) (touch) stimulus to the cheek. 6. Extremely low birth weight (less than 1000g) - Orients baby to the breast or bottle 7. Small-for-gestational age – infants whose birth weights are far below normal, - Disappears over the first few weeks of life and is replaced by voluntary even when born close to their normal due dates. head turning. e. Sucking reflex – sucking on objects placed or taken into the mouth. It Artificial Insemination – another reproductive conception method. allows babies to take in nutrients. Premature babies – babies who are born too early, before 37 weeks of pregnancy. f. Swallowing reflex – allows babies to swallow and take in nutrients. Social Environment after birth 2. Primitive Reflex - Utilizes primitive parts of the brain. I. Mother’s Experience - Specifically, medulla and midbrain (which are the first to fully develop upon Maternity Blues birth) Postpartum depression – strong feelings of sadness, resentment, and - Not permanent and significant. It has no use. despair that may appear shortly after childbirth and can linger for months. a. Babinski reflex – fanning and curling of the toes when the bottom of the foot is stroked. It disappears in the 1st year. II. Father’s experience b. Palmar grasping reflex – curling of the fingers around the objects that Engrossment – paternal analogue of maternal emotional bonding. A term touch the baby’s palm. It disappears in 3-4 months and is replaced by used to describe a father’s fascination with their neonates, including their voluntary grasp. desire to touch, hold, caress, and talk to the newborn baby. c. Moro reflex – startled, sudden change in position. It disappears in 4-6 months. III. Siblings Experience d. Swimming reflex – babies are able to keep afloat in water. It disappears in 4-6 months.  e. Stepping reflex – step as if to walk. It disappears in 8 weeks. (pattern: cry – silence – breath ) b. Pain cry – sudden and abrupt quiet cries States of Arousal c. Mad / Angry cry – loud and prolonged cries - Organized patterns of daily activity that are predictable and foster d. Colic cry – intense bouts of crying (3 or more hours a day). It could healthy developmental outcomes. also depend on the temperament of the baby. - States: 1. Regular Sleep – 8-9 hours Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS) – phenomenon where infants die while - Baby is still, and eyes are closed and unmoving. sleeping for no apparent reason. Also known as ”crib death”. - Breathing is slow and regular. - Risk factors: ▪ Circadian Rhythm – physical, mental, and behavioral changes that follow a 24-hr overheating, cycle; ”body clock”. lying position causing breathing problems 2. Irregular Sleep – 8-9 hours ; Rapid Eye Movement (REM) sleep occurs. Sensory Capabilities - Baby’s eyes are closed but can be observed to move under the closed eyelids. I. Vision – least developed sense of neonates. - Baby may jerk or grimace in response to stimulation. - Breathing may be irregular. Age Milestone 3. Drowsiness – 1 /2 to 3 hours Eye-blink reflex; pupillary reflex - Baby is falling asleep / waking up. Poor color discrimination - Eyes open and close and have a glazed appearance when open. Neonate Visual acuity is 20/200 to 20/400 - Breathing is regular but more rapid than in regular sleep. Eyes are sometimes uncoordinated; may look cross-eyed. Able to stare at an object if held 8-10 inches away 4. Alert inactivity – 2 to 3 hours Watches parent closely - Baby’s eyes are wide open and bright, exploring some aspect of the 2-4 mo. Tracks a moving object environment. Depth perception has developed - Breathing is even, and the body is relatively inactive. 5-8 mo. Good color vision 5. Alert activity – 1-3 hours Crawling enhances eye-hand-foot-body coordination - Baby’s eyes are open and breathing is irregular. Turns head to see an object - May become fussy and display various bursts of diffuse motor activity. 9-12 mo. Judges distance pretty well Watches objects that are moving too fast 6. Crying – 1-3 hours Interested in pictures - Intense crying that may be difficult to stop and is accompanied by high 12-24 mo. Recognizes familiar objects; recognizes own face in mirror levels of motor activity. Able to focus on objects near and far - It is the baby’s first form of communication. - Types: a. Basic cry – often signals hunger or changing of diapers.  Major Physical Development II. Hearing – more developed than vision but lesser than the other senses. Motor Skills - coordinated movements of arms and limbs Age Milestone - Has to major types: Responds to or turns toward high-pitched sounds or voices 1. Gross motor skills – coordinated movements of arms, legs, and torso Moro reflex A. Locomotor skills – body is moved in one direction or many directions. Neonate to 3 mo. Insensitive to soft sounds Recognizes the parent’s voice B. Object Control skills – require an ability to handle an object with When feeding, starts or stops sucking in response to sound control. Follows sounds with his or her eyes 2. Fine motor skills – movements that involve the use of the fingers. Responds to changes in the tone of parent’s voice 4-6 mo. Notices toys that make sounds Pays attention to music Make gurgling sounds when alone or playing with a parent Turns and looks in the direction of sounds 7-12 mo. Listens when spoken to Respond to verbal requests Imitates different speech sounds III. Smell, Taste, and Tactile – well-developed senses at birth Sense Milestone Detects a variety of odors (mother’s odor) Reacts vigorously by turning away and displaying disgust in Smell response to unpleasant smells Prefer the odor or milk When breast-fed, recognizes the mother’s odor Born with definite taste preferences; prefers sweets Taste Can discriminate sweet, salty, sour, and bitter tastes Different tastes elicit different facial expressions Can taste umami Displays reflexes due to touch Tactile Sensitive to warmth, cold, pain, changes in temperature and pressure. Fontanelles – soft spots on the infant’s head where the bony plates of the skull have not yet come together.  Age in months Gross Motor Skills Fine Motor Skills 4. Vision / Visual problems Lifts head slightly Holds objects if placed in 5. Spina bifida 1 hand INFANCY ; Personality, Emotional, and Social Development 2-3 Lifts head up to 90-degree angle when Begins to swipe at objects in lying on stomach sight Emotions (by Caroll Izard) – are biologically predetermined, where babies communicate Rolls over; sits with support; moves on Reaches for and grasps a variety of feelings through their facial expressions and that each expression becomes 4-6 hands and knees (creeping) ; head objects a more recognizable sign of specific emotion with age. erect while in sitting position 7-9 Sits without support; crawls Transfers objects from one Basic emotions – the set of emotions present at birth or emerging early in the first hand to the other year that some theorists believe to be biologically programmed. Pulls self-up and walks grasping Shows some signs of hand 10-12 furniture ; then walks alone; squats preference; grasps a spoon Age in months Emotion Category and stoops; plays pat-a-cake across palm but poor aim Contentment when moving food to mouth Disgust Walks backward and sideways; runs Stacks two blocks; puts Birth / Neonate Distress Basic 13-18 objects into small container Interest and dumps them Anger Walks up and down stairs, two feet Uses spoon to feed self; Fear 19-24 per step; jumps with both feet off stacks 4 to 10 blocks; Joy (social smile) the ground handedness is clear. 2-7 Sadness Basic Surprise Explaining motor skill development: Jealousy 7-8 Stranger anxiety / Separation anxiety Basic Dynamic System Theory – the notion that several factors interact to influence Embarrassment development. Natural / Biological factors, developmental factors, and cultural Envy factors. 12-24 Guilt Complex Pride Ossification – bone hardening (in a proximodistal and cephalocaudal pattern) Shame Changes in muscle composition At 7-8 months, measures of attachment can be observed. Lung efficiency – lungs grow efficiently and rapidly during the first 2 years. There are two types of anxiety: Improvement of lung efficiency results in greater stamina. Increasing strength of heart muscles 1. Stranger anxiety – expressions of discomfort, such as clinging to the mother, Causes of Motor skills delay: in the presence of strangers. 2. Separation anxiety – expressions of discomfort, such as crying, when 1. Preterm birth separated from an attachment figure. 2. Cerebral Palsy – affects a person’s ability to move (also balance and posture) 3. Cognitive delays Social Referencing – infants use the affective displays of an adult to regulate their 2. Irritable distress – fussiness, crying, and showing distress when desires are behaviors toward environmental objects, persons, and situations. Ex: An infant sees a frustrated (sometimes called frustration / anger) new shiny object on the floor and is obviously intrigued by it. He looks at her mother to 3. Positive affect – frequency of smiling, laughing, willingness to approach others see if it is okay for him to touch it. and to cooperate with them (called sociability by some researchers). Components of emotions: 4. Activity level – amount of gross motor activity (for example, kicking and crawling) 1. Physiological / Biological component 5. Attention span / Persistence (1st year) – length of time child orients to and 2. Behavioral component focuses on objects or events of interest. 3. Cognitive component – complex emotions have cognitive components. 6. Rhythmicity – regularity / predictability of bodily functions such as eating, Temperament (by Alexander Thomas and Stella Chess) – a person’s characteristic sleeping, and bowel functioning. modes of responding emotionally and behaviorally to environmental events, including such Attachment (by John Bowlby) attributes as activity level, irritability, fearfulness, and sociability. - it is the building block of adult personality - The emotional bond between infant and primary care giver, from which the child - it is an inborn predisposition to react in a certain way. derives a sense of security. - stable and persist until they are grownups. Synchrony – a mutual, interlocking pattern of attachment behaviors shared by a parent Classifications of Temperament and child. 1. Easy Temperament (40 percent) / ”easy babies” - These children approach new events positively, display predictable sleeping Phases of Attachment: and eating cycles, are generally happy, and adjust easily to change. Generally happy and easy to pacify. 1. Nonfocused orientation and signaling (0-3 months) 2. Difficult Temperament (10 percent) / ”difficult babies” - babies exhibit behaviors like crying, smiling, and making eye contact to draw - Patterns that include irregular sleeping and eating cycles, emotional the attention of others and signal their needs. They direct these to everyone negativity and irritability, and resistance to change characterize children in this with whom they come into contact. category. Manifested by negative emotions. 3. Slow-to-warm-up Temperament (15 percent) / ”quiet ones” 2. Focus on 1 or more figures (3-6 months) - Children in this group display few intense reactions, either positive or - babies direct their ”come here” signals to fewer people, typically those with negative, and appear nonresponsive to unfamiliar people. Quiet ones, no whom they spend the most time with and are less responsive to unfamiliar interactions, and social anxiety. people. Unclassified temperament (35 percent) Dimensions of Temperament: 3. Secure base behavior (6-24 months) - this is when true attachment emerges. 1. Fearful distress (6-7 months) – wariness, distress, and withdrawal in new - babies show ”proximity-seeking” behaviors such as following and clinging to situations or in response to novel stimuli. caregivers whom they regard as ”safe bases”, especially when they are anxious, injured, or have physical needs like hunger.  4. Internal Working Model (24 months to 4 years old) Important additional notes: - gets fixed at 4 years old ▪ Freud’s Psychosexual Theory - mental representation of the infant’s relationship with primary caregiver that - Fixation : a permanent learned behavior. serves as a blueprint for future relationships. ▪ Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory -secure attachment = trust in other people -Trust vs. Mistrust - insecure attachment = trust issues - Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt ▪ Parental Differences Types of Attachments (by Mary Ainsworth) Maternal Attachment Oxytocin – involved in empathy information. 1. Secure attachment Paternal Attachment - infant readily separates from the parent, seeks proximity when stressed, and Vasopressin – stimulates physical activity. uses the parent as a safe base for exploration. 2. Insecure / Avoidant Attachment ▪ Synaptogenesis – the process of synapse development - infant avoids contact with the parent and shows no preference for the parent ▪ Synapse – connections between neurons over other people. ▪ Pruning – the process of eliminating unused synapses. 3. Insecure / Ambivalent Attachment ▪ Lorenz Konrad – tested attachment with baby geese - infant shows little exploratory behavior, is greatly upset when separated Imprinting – making someone / or an object as the primary care giver. from the mother, and is not reassured by her return or efforts to comfort him. 4. Insecure / Disorganized Attachment (by Mary Main and Judith Solomon) - infant seems confused or apprehensive and shows contradictory behavior, such as moving toward the mother while looking away from her. INFANCY : Cognitive Development Factors that affect Attachment: Jean Piaget : Basic Principle 1. Contingent responsiveness – parents who demonstrate contingent ▪ Schema – organized pattern of thought or action that one constructs to interpret responsiveness are sensitive to the child’s cues and respond appropriately. some aspect of one’s experience (also called cognitive structure). It is the basic 2. Emotional Availability – an emotionally available caregiver is one who is able and unit of knowledge. willing to form an emotional attachment to the infant. ▪ Assimilation – interpreting new experiences by incorporating them into existing 3. Marital Status / Relationship – researchers have found that infants whose schemes. parents are married are more likely to be securely attached than babies whose ▪ Accommodation – modifying existing schemes in order to incorporate or adapt to parents are either cohabiting or single. Other factors such as education and new experiences. Schemas modified based on experience. family wealth could also affect forming attachment. Stages of Cognitive Development 4. Mental Health – depression diminishes a mother’s capacity to interpret and respond to important infant signals such as crying. 1. Sensorimotor Stage – Piaget’s first stage of development, in which infants use information from their senses and motor actions to learn about the world.  Months Sensorimotor Milestones Definition How do children acquire grammar? Involuntary and automatic response 1. Behavioral Theory (Burrhus F. Skinner) 0-1 Reflexes to stimuli - Language development begins with babbling. 1-4 Primary circular reactions Coordination of senses and motor - Parents hear the word like sounds and respond to them with praise and 4-8 Secondary circular reactions Repetitions of actions encouragement, which serve as reinforcers. - Correct grammar is reinforced and becomes more frequent, but incorrect 8-12 Coordination of secondary schemes Intentional means and behavior grammar is extinguished through nonreinforcement. 12-18 Tertiary circular reactions Trying out various alternatives - Not based on observations of language development, but rather on his assumption that the principles of operant conditioning underlie all human 18-24 Beginning of mental representation Start of pre-operational thinking learning and development. Notes: 2. Nativist / Linguistic Theory (Noam Chomsky) o Language Acquisition Device – contains the basic grammatical Object Permanence – develop in 1-4 months; belief that objects continue to structure of all human language. exist even when they are no longer be seen. 3. Social Interaction Means-end behavior – develop in 8-12 months; purposeful behavior carried out in o Infant-directed speech (motherese or parentese)– the simplified, pursuit of a specific goal; infants have a goal and plan to achieve something. higher-pitched speech that adults use with infants and young children. Language Development in Infants o Stimulating environment o Nature vs. Nurture Months / Years Language Development Milestone 4. Cognitive Theory 2-3 mo. Cooing 5 mo. Makes various vowel and consonant sounds 6 mo. Babbling ; utters phonemes of all languages 8-9 mo. Focuses on the language spoken in the home; has receptive language 12 mo. Expressive language emerges; says single words 12-18 mo. Holophrases 16-24 mo. Telegraphic speech; has naming explosion 3 years Fast-mapping occurs; start of grammar explosion; overregulation 6 years 15,000 words; mastery of the grammar and pronunciation of his first language; invented spelling 17-18 years Cutoff age for learning the grammar of a new language. -see definitions on the table found in page 24- 2. Preoperational Stage 3. Concrete Operational Stage 4. Formal Operational Stage Midterms 2. Left handedness – 10 percent Lesson: Physical Development Across the Lifespan 3. Ambidextrous – using both left and right. 4. Hand-specific handedness / Mixed Handedness o Prenatal Stage - Handedness depends on the task you’re doing. (There is a specific hand Important Physical Development Milestones in: that you use doing specific tasks) A. Germinal Stage : Cell Division (Mitosis) B. Embryonic Stage : Organogenesis Factors: C. Fetal Stage : Organs are functional. 1. Environmental – involves 40 genes o Infancy 2. Multifunctional Inheritance Important Physical Development Milestones: 8. Training 1. Reflexes Wellness: 2. Sensory capacity 3. Height and weight o Middle Childhood Important Physical Development Milestones: o Early Childhood 1. Height and growth Important Physical Development Milestones: 2. Gross Motor Skills 1. Height and weight (according to the standards of WHO Child Growth 3. Fine motor skills Standards) 4. Prone to accidents 2. Gross Motor Skills Wellness: 3. Sex Differences 4. Changes in body shape and structure o Adolescence 5. Fine motor skill Important Physical Development Milestones: Reasons why children stick out their tongue while writing: 1. Growth spurt 1. Motor Overflow - Rapid increase in height and weight. - If we are doing fine motor activities, there is immense creativity in - Controlled by the pituitary gland which produces and regulates the brain, overriding other brain activities and highly activating hormones. language control. A. Sex Differences: girls’ growth spurt – by ages 10 to 16, max 2. Evolutionary perspective height is achieved. - Belief that in the past, people used to do tongue and hand gestures, Boys’ growth spurt – by ages 12 to 18-20, max and this was passed down to offsprings for generations. 6. Bowel and Bladder control height is achieved. 7. Handedness – a strong preference for using one hand or the other hand - Product of multifactorial inheritance. B. Cephalocaudal and Proximodistal Patterns are reversed. that develops between 3 and 5 years of age. - Growth starts from the feet (larger shoe size) Types: 1. Right handedness – 90 percent  2. Puberty Major Hormones that contribute to Physical Growth and Development - Period when the sexual organs mature. A. Primary Sex Characteristics – includes the sex organs: ovaries, Gland Hormones Aspects of Growth Influenced Thyroid gland Thyroxine Normal brain development and uterus, and vagina in the female; testes and penis in the male. overall rate of growth o Menarche – first menstruation (as young as 10 years old) Some changes at puberty, Adrenal gland Adrenal androgen particularly the development of Spermatogenesis – production of sperm at age 12 secondary sex characteristics Crucial in the formation of male o Spermarche – first ejaculation (production of sperm; as genitals prenatally; also early as age 12) Testes Testosterone triggers the sequence of - Sperms during this time is not yet viable. At age 13, a year after changes in primary and spermarche, sperms can now be used for impregnation. secondary sex characteristics B. Secondary Sex Characteristics – include changes in body parts. at puberty in males. Development of the menstrual o For girls: cycle and breasts in girls; has - Breast enlargement Ovaries Estrogen less to do with other secondary - Growth of pubic hair and axillary hair (hair found in the armpits) sex characteristics than - Widening of hips testosterone for boys. o For boys: General growth hormone, Rate of physical maturation; - Growth of facial hair (mustache and beard) Pituitary gland thyroid stimulating signals other glands to secrete - Lowering of voice hormone and other - Broadening of shoulders activating hormones - Growth of body hairs (both pubic and axillary hairs) Luteinizing hormone and Follicle-stimulating Hormones for girls: Estrogen, Progesterone, small levels of testosterone hormone Hormones for boys: Androgen, Testosterone Health Problems in Adolescence: 1. STD (Sexually Transmitted Disease) 2. Teenage Pregnancy 3. Eating disorders a. Anorexia nervosa – extreme dieting, intense fear of gaining weight, and obsessive exercising. b. Bulimia nervosa – concern about weight combined with twice-weekly or more frequent cycles of binge eating followed by purging, self-induced vomiting, excessive exercising.  4. Depression and Suicide b. Fertility problems in women c. Premenopausal phase Precocious Puberty – occurs when signs of puberty start before age 8 in girls and age d. Lung problems 9 for boys. e. Cardiovascular disease Risk Factors: 5. Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs) a. Bacterial STDs 1. Tumors or growths on ovaries, testes, adrenal glands, pituitary gland, b. Viral STDs brain c. HV / AIDS 2. Central Nervous system problems 3. Family history of the disease 6. Accidents 7. Suicide Mechanisms of Maturation Wellness: Genetics affect puberty timing Mother’s age at menarche is related to her daughter’s age at menarche ▪ 30 mins of cardiovascular activities per week (Ex: brisk walking) Well nourished and healthy adolescents go through puberty earlier ▪ Healthy eating habits Puberty is later among girls who are afflicted with chronic diseases ▪ Having adequate social support ▪ Having high level of self-efficacy Psychological Impacts of Puberty o Middle Adulthood (ages 40-60 years old) Body Image Important Physical Development Milestone: Responses to menarche and spermarche 1. Loss of height (around 55 years old) Moodiness 2. ”Middle-age Spread” – too much fat accumulation around the belly area Time of maturation (including waist) resulting to larger bellies. o Early Adulthood ( ages 20-40 years old) Note: Waist of females must be less than 35 inches, and males must be less than 40 inches. Important Physical Development Milestone: 1. Optimal physical health 3. Diminished visual acuity and depth perception. 2. Senescence (Primary aging) – age-related physical changes that have o Presbyopia – loss of near vision (40s) biological basis and are universally shared and inevitable. (biological and o Presbycusis – loss of ability to hear high frequency sounds (50s) natural aging) 4. Loss of muscle tissues in the back and legs (50s) 3. Secondary aging – age-related changes that are due to environmental -can be resolved through regular exercise and brisk walking or jogging. influences, poor health habits, or disease. 5. Wrinkles – result when there is loss of collagen and elasticity in the skin. 4. Decline in physical functioning: -can be resolved by intaking collagen – a protein that improves skin’s a. Osteoporosis – loss of calcium in the bones elasticity.  6. Sexual activity gradually declines. 8. Slower reaction time. 7. Female climacteric 9. Reduction in stamina, dexterity (performing tasks with hands), and balance. o Female Climacteric – loss of ability to reproduce (Menopause) APPROACHES TO AGING o Menopause – cessation of the menstrual period around mid-40s to 45. 1. Genetic programming theories of Aging 8. Male climacteric - There is a built-in timeline for aging in our genes. o Male Climacteric – reduced / diminished capacity to reproduce o Hayflick limit – the limit on cell replication imposed by the (40s) shortening of telomeres. - Low sperm count ▪ Telomeres – a protective coating located at the tip of - Enlargement of the prostate gland DNA; it is a string of repetitive DNA at the tip of each - Erectile Dysfunction (impotence) chromosome in the body that appears to serve as a kind of timekeeping mechanism. Wellness: ▪ Avoid smoking and too much intake of alcohol. 2. Wear-and-tear theories of Aging ▪ Antioxidants (Vitamin E,C, or beta-carotene) decrease the risk of heart - Our cells are destroyed due to repetitive usage. diseases. - Antioxidants can help reduce this problem. ▪ Keeping a healthy weight / normal BMI o Free Radicals – when cells produce energy, some byproducts are ▪ Keeping body active by doing activities like brisk walking or jogging. formed, which are the free radicals. They are electrically charged and binds with other electrons causing cellular damage. o Late Adulthood (ages 60 and older) Additional notes from exam: (General physical features of each stage) – 3 types: ✓ Germinal stage – Mitosis / Cell division a. Young old (ages 65 to 74 years old) ✓ Embryonic stage – Organogenesis b. Old old (ages 75 to 84 years old) ✓ Fetal stage – Some organs are functional c. Oldest old (ages 85 and older) ✓ Infancy – Reflexes / Sensory capacity / Fine and motor skills Important Physical Development Milestones: ✓ Early adulthood – Development of fine and motor skills 1. General slowing down of physical health ✓ Middle adulthood -- Refined fine and motor skills 2. Diminished REM sleep / they become light sleepers ✓ Adolescence – Growth spurt and puberty 3. Reduced frequency of sexual activities 4. Decreased capacity of the heart to pump blood throughout the circulatory ✓ Early adulthood – Optimal physical health system. ✓ Middle adulthood – Aging (senescence and secondary) 5. Respiratory and digestive systems are less efficient ✓ Later adulthood – General slowing down of physical health 6. Hormones are produced at lower levels. 7. Muscle fibers decrease both in size and amount. Cognitive Development across the Lifespan Important notes: ▪ Neural tube develops into brain and spinal cord. I. Brain Development ▪ Midbrain functions in motor movement, particularly in auditory and visual processing. ▪ Medulla controls vital processes like heartbeat, breathing, and blood pressure. Week / Years Brain Development Milestone ▪ Cerebral Cortex (as well as the whole Frontal lobe) is fully developed at age 25. Embryonic Stage ▪ Synaptogenesis improves at first 2 years because of being exposed to many stimuli. Week 3 Neurons form the neural tube ▪ Corpus Callosum connects the right and left hemispheres of the cerebral cortex to have Week 4 Neural tube (3mm) swells to form the brain communication, which makes the lateralization possible. ▪ Reticular formation controls attention, focus, and concentration. Week 6 Brain begins to produce electrical activity and moves in response to ▪ Hippocampus is involved in long-term memory formation and memory retrieval. stimuli ▪ Frontal Lobe is responsible for higher mental processes like reasoning, judgement, and Week 8 Electrical activity in the brain becomes more organized problem solving. Fetal Stage ▪ Limbic System is responsible for behavioral and emotional responses to stimuli, and it Week 12 Synaptogenesis begins supports higher mental functions (like learning, making memories, formulating habits) Infancy The midbrain and medulla are the most fully developed; cortex is the least developed. ▪ Lateralization is the specialized function between the right and left hemispheres of At birth (about 100 billion neurons; and brain weighs about 350 – 400 grams at the cerebral cortex. birth) o Right hemisphere – artistic skills, spatial ability, creativity, musical skills First 2 years Synaptogenesis occurs rapidly in the cortex. o Left hemisphere – speech/ language, comprehension, arithmetic, writing, Myelinization is fast 2 years Synaptic pruning begins logical and analytical skills. Early Childhood Recall: Corpus callosum grows and matures (lateralization) ▪ Synaptogenesis is the creation/ growth of synaptic neurons, occurring in the 3-6 years Myelination of the reticular formation and hippocampus cortex. Middle Childhood ▪ Synaptic Pruning is the phenomenon where unused synapses are naturally removed. 6-8 years Growth spurt in the sensory and motor areas ▪ Myelination / Myelinization is the formation of the myelin sheath, which acts as 10-12 years Growth spurt in the frontal lobe of the cortex insulator and allows electrical impulses to transmit quickly and efficiently along the Adolescence to Adulthood nerve cells. -In short, a thicker myelin sheath increases the speed of learning. 13-15 years Cerebral efficient cortex becomes thicker and neural pathways become more 17-22 years Growth spurt in the frontal lobes II. Information Processing Approaches Mid- to late 20s Frontal lobes regulate the limbic system - This model seeks to identify the way that individuals take in, use, and Reduction of brain weight store information. Adulthood Loss of gray matter Decline in the density of dendrites - Ex: Slower synaptic speed  - Basic aspect: Memory ✓ 6 months olds can remember for as long as 3 weeks (21 days). Is there memory in utero? Implicit / Procedural memory – memory of certain skills or actions - They are unconscious and automatic and include memories of how to Fetal Memory – memories you have inside the uterus when you were a fetus. perform tasks that you do every day. (For example, riding a bike) o Habituation