Developmental Psychology Notes PDF

DEV. PSYC. NOTES (ENDTERM) the loss of loved ones, and adjusting to physical limitations. Many individuals focus on life 1. Emerging Adulthood reflect...

DEV. PSYC. NOTES (ENDTERM) the loss of loved ones, and adjusting to physical limitations. Many individuals focus on life 1. Emerging Adulthood reflection, often grappling with questions of legacy Emerging adulthood refers to the transitional period and meaning. Some may also face challenges like between adolescence and full adulthood, typically health decline, living with chronic illness, or spanning ages 18 to 25. During this stage, individuals navigating end-of-life issues. experience exploration in love, work, and Social engagement and maintaining a sense of worldviews. This period is characterized by a delay purpose are important for mental well-being in late in traditional adult roles like marriage, parenthood, adulthood. and financial independence. The focus is on identity exploration, self-discovery, and gaining greater IN SUM. autonomy. These stages reflect the continuous development of 2. Early Adulthood (Changes and Developmental individuals as they navigate different life phases, Tasks) with each stage presenting unique challenges, opportunities, and tasks. Early adulthood generally occurs from ages 20 to 40. Key developmental tasks include establishing LEVINSON'S SEASONS OF A MAN'S LIFE independence, pursuing higher education or career THEORY goals, forming intimate relationships, and possibly Levinson's theory, known as Levinson's Seasons of a starting a family. Psychologically, this stage involves Man's Life, presents a framework for understanding forming a stable identity, finding one's place in the adult development, emphasizing the various stages world, and making long-term commitments. Major people go through as they age. The key concepts of life changes, such as career advancement, marriage, his theory include: and parenthood, often occur during this time. Physical health and vitality are typically at their 1. Life Structure peak. Concept: The life structure is the pattern or design of 3. Middle Adulthood a person's life, shaped by relationships, work, and personal goals. It evolves over time as a person Middle adulthood typically occurs between the ages progresses through different stages. of 40 and 65. This stage is marked by reflection on life’s accomplishments and adjustments to aging. Example: A person's life structure could be their Individuals often face changes in their roles within balancing act between career ambitions, family life, the family (e.g., becoming parents of adult children and social relationships. For instance, someone or caring for aging parents) and in their careers (e.g., might prioritize building their career in their 20s but career shifts or facing peak professional later shift focus toward family life in their 30s. achievement). Physical changes, such as decreased metabolism and signs of aging (e.g., graying hair or 2. The Early Adult Transition (17-22 years) changes in vision), may become more noticeable. Concept: This transition marks the shift from The developmental tasks often include managing life adolescence to adulthood. It involves gaining transitions, adjusting to physical aging, and independence, exploring identity, and preparing for reevaluating goals and priorities. adult responsibilities. 4. Late Adulthood Example: A high school graduate deciding whether Late adulthood generally starts around age 65 and to attend college, join the workforce, or take a gap continues through the end of life. In this stage, people year. They may also experience their first significant experience significant changes in health, cognitive romantic relationship or move out of their parents’ abilities, and social roles. Common developmental home to live independently. tasks include coping with retirement, dealing with 3. Entering the Adult World (22-28 years) Example: A 42-year-old might look back at their career and question if they’re happy with their Concept: Young adults enter the "adult world" by choices, leading to a career shift or a renewed focus establishing careers, forming intimate relationships, on personal passions. A mother who has raised and developing a sense of personal responsibility. children might feel the need to pursue further Example: A person in their mid-20s may start a education or explore personal hobbies now that her career in their field of study, begin to live with a children are older. partner, and perhaps get married or set long-term 7. Entering Middle Adulthood (45-50 years) career goals. A lawyer may start their first full-time position at a law firm, while someone in their 20s Concept: This stage involves more consolidation of may move into their own apartment and start goals and a focus on long-term success. People start building a stable adult life. to think about their legacy and life beyond work. 4. The Age 30 Transition (28-33 years) Example: A 48-year-old executive might start mentoring younger employees or writing a book Concept: At this stage, individuals reassess their life about their experiences. Someone might become and goals, which may lead to changes in their career deeply involved in charitable causes or focus on or relationships. spending quality time with family as retirement Example: A person who has been in a job for five approaches. years may feel unfulfilled and decide to change 8. Late Adulthood (60+ years) careers. Another person may be evaluating whether to continue their marriage or settle into a new life Concept: In this stage, people reflect on their life and path. For example, a person who is working in deal with the realities of aging, retirement, and marketing may feel the need to switch careers and mortality. This period is about finding peace with pursue their passion for teaching. one's achievements and preparing for the end of life. 5. Settling Down (33-40 years) Example: A retired 65-year-old may spend more time with grandchildren, volunteer, or travel the world. A Concept: This is a time to solidify one’s life structure 70-year-old might start to focus more on health and and achieve stability. Adults focus on advancing their wellness and reflect on the meaning of life, looking careers and establishing a sense of family life. back at accomplishments and relationships. Example: A 35-year-old might be focused on IN SUM. advancing in their job, buying a home, or raising children. A teacher might work towards tenure, while Levinson's theory highlights that adult development a parent might ensure their children’s education and is a dynamic process, with individuals experiencing family finances are stable. various transitions throughout life, each influencing the direction of their future development. 6. Mid-life Transition (40-45 years) STEINBERG'S TRIANGULAR THEORY OF Concept: People enter a period of self-reflection, LOVE often questioning their life choices. This is often linked with the "midlife crisis," where individuals Steinberg's Triangular Theory of Love posits that reassess their achievements and future goals. love is composed of three key components, which combine in different ways to form different types of love relationships. These components are: Intimacy: The emotional closeness, warmth, and bonding shared between partners. It involves feelings of comfort, trust, and connection. Passion: The physical attraction and sexual desire in Example: A whirlwind romance where two people a relationship. It’s the intense, exciting, and are intensely passionate and decide to commit to each sometimes overwhelming feeling that often sparks other quickly, but without deeply knowing or romantic relationships. understanding each other. Commitment: The decision to maintain the Consummate Love: High intimacy, passion, and relationship over time, despite challenges, and the commitment. intention to stay together. Example: The ideal love, where there is emotional 8 Types of Love closeness, physical attraction, and a strong commitment to stay together. This type of love is Non-Love: No intimacy, no passion, no often considered the most complete form of love. commitment. IN SUM. Example: An acquaintance with whom you have no romantic or emotional connection. The Triangular Theory of Love outlines how different combinations of intimacy, passion, and Liking (Friendship): High intimacy, but no passion commitment form distinct types of love, ranging or commitment. from non-love (no components) to consummate love Example: A close friendship where there is emotional (all components). The theory highlights that love is closeness but no romantic attraction or commitment. dynamic and can evolve based on how these components change over time in a relationship. Infatuation: High passion, but no intimacy or commitment. LEV VYGOTSKY'S THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT Example: A crush or an intense, short-lived attraction to someone that lacks a deep emotional connection Lev Vygotsky's Theory of Cognitive Development or commitment. emphasizes the social context of learning, suggesting that cognitive development is largely influenced by Empty Love: No intimacy or passion, but high social interactions and cultural tools. He proposed commitment. that children learn through interactions with more Example: A relationship where partners remain knowledgeable others (parents, teachers, peers), together out of duty or obligation, but without love, which helps them internalize concepts and skills. affection, or closeness. The key concepts of Vygotsky's theory include: Romantic Love: High intimacy and passion, but no Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): The ZPD commitment. is the range between what a learner can do Example: A summer romance or a relationship that is independently and what they can do with help. passionate but doesn't involve a long-term Effective learning happens in this zone when commitment. children are guided by a more knowledgeable person. Companionate Love: High intimacy and Example: A child might not be able to solve a math commitment, but no passion. problem on their own but can do so with the help of a teacher or peer who provides guidance. The Example: A deep, lasting friendship or a long-term teacher's support allows the child to reach their marriage where the passion has faded but there is a potential and eventually solve similar problems strong bond and mutual commitment. independently. Fatuous Love: High passion and commitment, but no intimacy. Scaffolding: This refers to the support provided by a Explanation: Attention is crucial in learning because more knowledgeable person to help a learner if you’re not focused on the behavior, you won’t accomplish tasks within their ZPD. Over time, the absorb it properly. support is gradually reduced as the learner gains Retention: The observed behavior must be independence. remembered in order to be replicated later. Example: A teacher might initially demonstrate how Example: After watching a tutorial on how to play a to solve a puzzle and then gradually reduce their new guitar song, an adult musician mentally assistance as the child becomes more capable. rehearses the steps they observed, remembering Cultural Tools and Language: Vygotsky believed finger placements and strumming patterns. When that cognitive development is shaped by the tools and they try to play the song, they can recall the symbols provided by culture, especially language. movements and reproduce them. Language helps children think, reason, and solve Explanation: Retention involves remembering the problems. observed behavior, which is necessary for Example: A child learns to solve a problem by talking performing it later. through it, either aloud or in their head. This self-talk, Reproduction: The ability to reproduce the often referred to as "private speech," is essential for observed behavior depends on the individual’s cognitive development. physical and cognitive capabilities. IN SUM. Example: A teenager who watches their older sibling In short, Vygotsky's theory highlights the importance drive a car smoothly for the first time may attempt to of social interaction and cultural context in cognitive drive themselves. They have seen how it’s done growth, with a focus on the supportive role of adults (attention) and can remember the steps (retention), and peers. but their ability to drive effectively depends on their skills (e.g., physical coordination and knowledge of BANDURA'S SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY the car's controls). Bandura's Social Learning Theory (Adolescence to Explanation: Reproduction refers to the ability to Adulthood) focuses on how individuals learn physically and mentally replicate the behavior, based behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions through on one’s capabilities. observing and interacting with others. In this phase, learning happens not just through direct experiences, Motivation: Individuals are more likely to imitate but through observing others (models), especially behaviors if they see the model being rewarded or during adolescence and adulthood. This is central to reinforced for those actions (vicarious Bandura's concept of observational learning. reinforcement). Key Concepts: Example: An adult employee notices that their coworker who speaks confidently in meetings gets Attention: To learn from a model, an individual promoted. Motivated by the potential reward, they must first pay attention to the behavior being start adopting similar confident speaking behaviors demonstrated. in meetings, hoping to receive recognition and career Example: A teenager watches a famous athlete advancement. perform a difficult move in a sport, like a basketball Explanation: Motivation is the drive to imitate dunk. To learn the move, they need to focus on how behavior, often influenced by seeing the model the athlete jumps, positions their body, and the timing receive rewards (vicarious reinforcement) or avoid involved. If the teenager doesn't pay attention to the punishment. details, they won’t be able to learn or replicate the move. IN SUM. Example: Sarah grows up in a society that values education and encourages gender equality, which Each of these key concepts plays a vital role in how positively shapes her ambitions and future career behaviors are learned and modeled throughout aspirations. adolescence into adulthood. Chronosystem: The dimension of time, reflecting BRONFENBRENNER'S ECOLOGICAL how environmental events and transitions affect SYSTEMS THEORY individuals over time (e.g., historical events, life Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Systems Theory transitions like puberty or aging). explains how different environmental systems Example: As Sarah grows from adolescence to influence an individual's development. It emphasizes adulthood, her experiences will be influenced by that human development is shaped by interactions changes over time, such as societal shifts or family within and between various layers of the events (e.g., the impact of the digital revolution or a environment, which range from immediate family divorce). surroundings to broader societal factors. IN SUM. Key Systems in Bronfenbrenner's Theory: In sum, Bronfenbrenner's theory highlights that a Microsystem: The immediate environment where a person’s development is affected by multiple layers person directly interacts (e.g., family, school, peers). of influence, both immediate and distant, with each Example: Sarah’s family, friends, and school directly layer interacting to shape who they become. influence her development. Her parents support her KOHLBERG'S THEORY OF MORAL education, her friends influence her social behaviors, DEVELOPMENT and her school shapes her academic development. Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development describes Mesosystem: The interconnections between the how individuals' moral reasoning evolves in stages. microsystems (e.g., the relationship between family He proposed that moral development progresses and school). through three levels: Preconventional, Conventional, Example: There’s a positive relationship between and Postconventional, each containing two stages. Sarah’s parents and teachers, leading to her receiving Below is a brief explanation of each level and stage: extra support for her studies, creating a strong 1. Preconventional Level (Focus: External connection between home and school. Consequences) Exosystem: External environmental settings that At this level, moral reasoning is based on the indirectly influence an individual (e.g., a parent’s consequences of actions, and individuals seek to workplace, community services). avoid punishment or gain rewards. Example: Sarah’s father has a demanding job, which Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment Orientation can impact her family life. If he works long hours and feels stressed, it may affect the time and energy he Explanation: Moral decisions are made based on has for spending with Sarah, indirectly influencing avoiding punishment. The child’s primary concern is her well-being. whether their action will lead to negative consequences. Macrosystem: The broader cultural and societal context, including values, laws, and customs (e.g., Example: A child avoids stealing a cookie because national policies, cultural attitudes). they fear being punished by their parents. Stage 2: Individualism and Exchange Stage 5: Social Contract and Individual Rights Explanation: At this stage, individuals recognize that Explanation: Individuals at this stage understand that different people have different perspectives, and they laws and rules are made for the greater good, but they act in their own interest to obtain rewards or favors. recognize that laws can be changed or challenged if They understand that others may act out of self- they don’t serve the welfare of society. They focus on interest as well. human rights and the social contract. Example: A child might agree to share their toy with Example: A person might protest an unjust law a friend if they expect the friend to share something because they believe that the law violates basic in return. human rights or fairness (e.g., advocating for civil rights). 2. Conventional Level (Focus: Social Norms and Approval) Stage 6: Universal Principles At this level, moral reasoning is influenced by social Explanation: At the highest stage of moral norms, expectations, and the desire to be accepted by development, individuals make decisions based on others. universal ethical principles, such as justice, equality, and respect for human dignity. They may break laws Stage 3: Good Interpersonal Relationships or rules if they conflict with these higher moral Explanation: Individuals at this stage make decisions principles. based on social approval. They want to be seen as Example: A person refuses to participate in an unjust good, caring individuals, and seek approval from war because they believe in the universal principle of others by following social conventions and peace and non-violence, even if it means going maintaining relationships. against their country’s government. Example: A teenager decides not to cheat on a test IN SUM. because they want to be seen as a responsible and trustworthy person by their teachers and peers. Preconventional Level: Moral decisions are based on self-interest and the desire to avoid punishment or Stage 4: Maintaining Social Order gain rewards. Explanation: Moral decisions are based on following Conventional Level: Moral reasoning is guided by laws and respecting authority to maintain social social norms and the desire to gain approval or order. At this stage, individuals believe in fulfilling maintain social order. duties and obligations to society. Postconventional Level: Moral decisions are based Example: An adult follows traffic laws, even when on abstract principles such as justice, human rights, no one is watching, because they believe in and equality, even if they challenge laws or norms. maintaining order and upholding the law. Kohlberg's stages represent a progression from self- 3. Postconventional Level (Focus: Internal centered reasoning in early stages to principled, Principles) universal ethical reasoning in adulthood. At this level, individuals develop a more abstract and principled approach to morality, where they follow internal ethical principles, even if they conflict with societal laws.