Chapter 5 Development_ppt2.pdf

Unit 5: Developmental Psychology PowerPoint® Presentation by Jim Foley 1 © 2013 Worth Publishers  What is developmental psychology? Examines how people are continually developing – physically, cognitively & socially – from infancy through old age....

Unit 5: Developmental Psychology PowerPoint® Presentation by Jim Foley 1 © 2013 Worth Publishers  What is developmental psychology? Examines how people are continually developing – physically, cognitively & socially – from infancy through old age. Much of the research focuses on 3 major issues: – Nature & Nurture: How do genetic inheritance (nature) & experience (nurture) influence our development? – Continuity & Stages: Is development a gradual, continuous process like riding an escalator, or does it proceed through a sequence of separate stages, like climbing rungs on a ladder? – Stability & Change: Do our early personality traits persist through life, or do we become different persons as we age?  Topics in This Chapter Issues to keep in mind:  nature and nurture  continuity and stages  stability and change Stages/ages covered:  from conception to old age (womb to the tomb) Types of development:  physical  cognitive  social/emotional 3  Prenatal Development & The Newborn A woman’s ovary releases a mature egg – a cell roughly the size of a period @ the end of sentence in text; Females are born with all the immature eggs she’ll ever have. A man begins producing sperm @ puberty & although the production will slow with age, he continues to make sperm the rest of his life. 200 million deposited sperm race upstream, approaching a cell 85,000x their own size; The relatively few sperm that reach the egg release digestive enzyme that eats away @ egg’s protective coating. As soon as one sperm begins to penetrate & is welcomed in, the egg’s surface blocks out the others Before ½ a day elapses, the egg nucleus & sperm nucleus fuse…the two have become one.  The Zygote Stage: First 10 to 14 Days Prenatal After the nuclei of the egg and sperm fuse, the cell divides in 2, 4, 8, Development 16, 100, 1000… Milestone of the zygote stage: cells begin to differentiate into specialized locations and structures Implantation: The Embyro, 2 to 8 weeks This stage begins with the multicellular cluster that implants in the uterine wall. Milestone of the implantation stage: differentiated cells develop into organs and bones Fetus, 9 weeks to birth  Latin for “offspring” or “young one” Embryo 6 Fetal Life: The Dangers Dangers Placenta screens out many harmful substances but some slip by Teratogens (“monster makers”) are substances such as viruses and chemicals that can damage the developing embryo or fetus. Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) refers to cognitive, behavioral, and body/brain structure abnormalities caused by exposure to alcohol in the fetal stage. 7 Fetal life: Responding to Sounds  Fetuses in the womb can respond to sounds.  Fetuses can learn to recognize and adapt to sounds that they previously heard only in the womb.  Fetuses can habituate to annoying sounds, becoming less agitated with repeated exposure. 8 After the Fetal Stage the baby is born! 9  The Competent Inborn Skills Reflexes are responses that are Newborn inborn and do not have to be learned. Newborns have reflexes to ensure that they will be fed. The rooting reflex‐‐when something touches a newborn’s cheek, the infant turns toward that side with an open mouth. The sucking reflex can be triggered by a fingertip. Crying when hungry is the newborn talent of using just the right sounds to motivate parents to end the noise and feed the baby. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IYz6tE3XmHM 10  More Inborn Abilities  Newborns (one hour old!) will look twice as long at the image on the left.  What can we conclude from this behavior? 11 Brain Development: Building and Connecting Neurons  In the womb, the number of neurons grows by about 750,000 new cells per minute in the middle trimester.  Beginning at birth, the connections among neurons proliferate. As we learn, we form more branches and more neural networks.  In infancy, the growth in neural connections takes place initially in the less complex parts of the brain (the brainstem and limbic system), as well as the motor and sensory strips.  This enables body functions and basic survival skills.  In early childhood, neural connections proliferate in the association areas.  This enables advancements in controlling attention and behavior (frontal lobes) and also 12in thinking, memory, and language. Motor Development  Maturation takes place in the body and cerebellum enabling the sequence below.  Physical training generally cannot change the timing. 13 Baby Memory Infantile Amnesia  In infancy, the brain forms memories so differently from the episodic memory of adulthood that most people cannot really recall memories from the first three years of life.  A birthday party when turning three might be a person’s first memory. Learning Skills  Infants can learn skills (procedural memories).  This three month old can learn, and recall a month later, that specific foot movements move specific mobiles. 14 Cognitive Development Cognition refers to the mental activities that help us function, including: problem‐solving. figuring out how the world works. developing models and concepts. storing and retrieving knowledge. understanding and using language. using self‐talk and inner thoughts. 15 Cognitive Development: Jean Piaget (1896‐1980)  We don’t start out being able to think like adults.  Jean Piaget studied the errors in cognition made by children in order to understand in what ways they think differently than adults. The error below is an inability to understand scale (relative size). 16 Jean Piaget and Cognitive Development: Schemas  An infant’s mind works hard to make sense of our experiences in the world.  An early tool to organize those experiences is a schema, a mental container we build to hold our experiences.  Schemas can take the form of images, models, and/or concepts. This child has formed a schema called “COW” which he uses to think about animals of a certain shape and size. “Cow!” “Cow!” 17 Jean Piaget and Cognitive Development: Assimilation and Accommodation How can this girl use her “dog” schema when encountering a cat?  She can assimilate the experience into her schema by referring to the cat as a “dog” or  she can accommodate her animal schema by separating the cat, and even different types of dogs, into separate schemas. 18 Jean Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development 19  Sensorimotor Stage (From Birth to Age 2) In the sensorimotor stage, children explore by looking, hearing, touching, mouthing, and grasping. Cool cognitive trick learned at 6 to 8 months, coming up next: object permanence. 20  Hmm, a bear, should There’s a game I’ve I put it in my mouth? learned to play all by myself: peekaboo! Object Permanence Through games like “peekaboo,” kids learn object permanence‐‐the idea that objects exist even when they can’t be seen. 21 22  Can Children Think Abstractly? Jean Piaget felt that kids in the sensorimotor stage did not think abstractly. Yet there is some evidence that kids in this stage can notice violations in physics (such as gravity). Does that mean babies are doing physics? 23 Is This Math? If so, kids in the “sensorimotor” stage do math. Babies stare longer and with surprise when numbers don’t make sense. Is this math? Was Jean Piaget wrong? 24 What can kids do in the preoperational stage? 1. Represent their schema, and even some feelings, with words and images. 2. Use visual models to represent other places, and perform pretend play. 3. Picture other points of view, replacing egocentrism with theory of mind. 4. Use intuition, but not logic and abstraction yet. 25 Egocentrism: “I am the World.” What mistake is the boy making? Yes. Do you Eleanor. have a Sister? Does Eleanor No. have a brother? How does this relate to our definition of egocentrism? 26  Egocentrism: the child has difficulty perceiving things from another person’s point of view. – Collective monologues kids appear to be talking to each other, but they’re talking about 2 completely different objects. – Animism kids believe that nature is alive and controllable by them or their parents; often believe natural things (trees/rocks) have feelings. – Artificialism kids believe natural phenomena are created by people, for instance, that mountains were created by someone piling up a bunch of dirt. *Use your finger to trace a capital letter E on your forehead……….. Which way did you draw it… so others could see it? Or did the E face you?  Maturing beyond Egocentrism: Developing a “Theory of Mind” Theory of mind refers to the ability to understand that others have their own thoughts and perspective. With a theory of mind, you can picture that Sally will have the wrong idea about where the ball is. 29 Examples of Operations that Preoperational Children Cannot Do…Yet Conservation refers to the ability to understand that a quantity is conserved (does not change) even when it is arranged in a different shape. Which row has more mice? 30  The Concrete Operational Stage  begins at ages 6‐7 (first grade) to age 11  children now grasp conservation and other concrete transformations  they also understand simple mathematical transformations the reversibility of operations (reversing 3 + 7 = 10 to figure out that 10 ‐ 7 = 3). 31 Formal Operational Stage (Age 11 +) Concrete operations Includes arithmetic include analogies such transformations: as “My brain is like a computer.” if 4 + 8 = 12, 12 – 4 = ? Formal operations includes allegorical thinking such as Includes algebra: “People who live in if x = 3y and x – 2y = 4, glass houses shouldn’t what is x? throw stones” (understanding that this is a comment on hypocrisy). 32 Reassessment of Jean Piaget’s Theory Using Models: Symbolic Thinking? Although Jean Piaget’s observation and stage theory Three‐year‐olds can use a are useful, today’s researchers tiny model of a room as a believe: map, helping them to picture the location of 1.development is a continuous objects in a full‐sized process. room. 2.children show some mental Does this 3‐year‐old abilities and operations at an ability mean that Piaget earlier age than Piaget thought. was wrong? Do kids use 3.formal logic is a smaller part symbolic thought much of cognition, even for adults, earlier than he than Piaget believed. suggested? 33 Lev Vygotsky: Alternative to Jean Piaget  Lev Vygotsky (1896‐1934) studied kids too, but focused on how they learn in the context of social communication.  Principle: children learn thinking skills by internalizing language from others and developing inner speech: “Put the big blocks on the bottom, not the top…”  Vygotsky saw development as building on a scaffold of mentoring, language, and cognitive support from parents and others.  https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=InzmZtHuZPY 34  Social Development: Attachment Attachment refers to an emotional tie to another person. In children, attachment can appear as a desire for physical closeness to a caregiver. Origins of Attachment Experiments with monkeys suggest that attachment is based on physical affection and comfortable body contact, and not based on being rewarded with food. 35 – Familiarity: that with which we are used to… Critical Period: optimal period shortly after birth when an organism’s exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development; (language, faces, voices) Imprinting: Konrad Lorenz (1937) – process by which certain animals form attachments during critical period very early in life; chicks will follow the 1st moving object they see believing it to be their mother & once formed this attachment is difficult to reverse. Implications for human children: like to read the same books, re- watch the same movies, re- enact family traditions, eat familiar foods because familiarity is a safety signal. Attachment Variation: Styles of Dealing with Separation The degree and style of parent‐child attachment has Reactions to Separation and been tested by Mary Reunion Ainsworth in the “strange Secure attachment: most situations” test. In this test, children (60 percent) feel a child is observed as: distress when mother leaves, 1.a mother and infant child and seek contact with her when are alone in an unfamiliar she returns (“strange”) room; the child Insecure attachment (anxious explores the room as the style): clinging to mother, less mother just sits. likely to explore environment, 2.a stranger enters the and may get loudly upset with room, talks to the mother, mother’s departure and remain and approaches the child; upset when she returns the mother leaves the room. Insecure attachment (avoidant 3.After a few moments, the style): seeming indifferent to mother returns. mother’s departure and return 38 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s608077NtNI  What causes these different attachment styles: nature or nurture? Is the “strange situations” Is the behavior a reaction to the way behavior mainly a function of the parents have interacted with the the child’s inborn child previously? If so, is that caused temperament? by the parenting behavior?  Temperament refers to a  Mary Ainsworth believed that person’s characteristic style sensitive, responsive, calm and intensity of emotional parenting is correlated with the reactivity. secure attachment style.  Some infants have an “easy”  Monkeys with unresponsive temperament; they are artificial mothers showed anxious happy, relaxed, and calm, insecure attachment. with predictable rhythms of needing to eat and sleep.  Training in sensitive responding  Some infants seem to be for parents of temperamentally‐ “difficult”; they are irritable, difficult children led to doubled with unpredictable needs rates of secure attachment. and behavior, and intense reactions. 39  Fathers Count Too  Many studies of the impact of parenting have focused on mothers.  Correlational studies show a strong relationship between paternal (father) involvement in parenting and the child’s academic success, health, and overall well‐being. 40  Attachment Styles… not just about bonding with parents  Erik Erikson’s concept of basic trust resembles the concept of attachment, Are basic trust and attachment but extends beyond the styles determined in childhood? family into our feeling of whether the world is Erik Erikson believed that basic predictable and trust is established by relationships trustworthy. with early caregivers.  Attachment style may be Are trust and attachment styles: relevant to our ability to manage and enjoy adult  set by genetics? relationships. It may even  formed by early experiences be relevant to our with parents? motivations to achieve or to avoid risks.  reshaped by new relationship experiences? 41 Deprivation of Attachment  If children live without safe, nurturing, affectionate caretaking, they may still be resilient, that is bounce back, attach, and succeed.  However, if the child experiences severe, prolonged deprivation or abuse, he or she may:  have difficulty forming attachments.  have increased anxiety and depression.  have lowered intelligence.  show increased aggression. 42  Childhood: Self‐Concept  A major task of infancy may be to form healthy attachments.  A major task of childhood may be to form a healthy self‐ concept: a stable and positive understanding of identity.  By age 8‐10, a child moves from “that’s me in the mirror” to “I have skills, preferences, and goals”; this prepares the child for confident success. 43  Childhood: Hypothetical Parenting Styles Style Response to Child’s Behavior Authoritarian Parents impose rules “because I said so” “Too Hard” and expect obedience. Permissive Parents submit to kids’ desires, not enforcing “Too Soft” limits or standards for child behavior. Parents enforce rules, limits, and standards Authoritative but also explain, discuss, listen, and express “Just Right” respect for child’s ideas and wishes. What type of parenting styles did your parents use? When/If you are a parent, what type of parenting style do you think you would use? 44 Outcomes with Parenting Styles  Authoritative parenting, more than the other two styles, seems to be associated with:  high self‐reliance.  high social competence.  high self‐esteem.  low aggression.  But are these a result of parenting style, or are parents responding to a child’s temperament? Or are both a function of culture ? Or genes? 45  Physical Development Puberty is the time of sexual maturation (becoming physically able to reproduce). During puberty, increased sex hormones lead to: primary and secondary sex characteristics. some changes in mood and behavior. Height changes are an early sign of puberty. Because girls begin puberty sooner than boys, girls briefly overtake boys in height. 46 Adolescent Brain Development  During puberty, the brain Frontal Lobes are Last to stops automatically adding Rewire new connections, and becomes more efficient by The emotional limbic system “rewiring.” gets wired for puberty before  “pruning” away the the frontal judgment centers connections not being of the brain get wired for used adulthood.  coating the well‐used As a result, adolescents may connections in myelin, in understand risks and order to speed up nerve consequences, but give conduction more weight to potential  This makes early thrills and rewards. adolescence a crucial time Teens have developed a mental to learn as much as you can! accelerator, but are not in the habit of using the brakes. 47 Adolescent Cognitive Development According to Jean Piaget, adolescents are in the formal operational stage. They use this reasoning to: think about how reality compares to ideals. think hypothetically about different choices and their consequences. plan how to pursue goals. think about the minds of others, including “what do they think of me?” 48 Building Toward Moral Reasoning  Adolescents see Lawrence Kohlberg’s justice and fairness in terms of merit and Levels of Moral Reasoning equity instead of in terms of everyone Preconventional morality (up to getting equal age 9): “Follow the rules because treatment. if you don’t, you’ll get in trouble; if you do, you might get a treat.”  Adolescents may strive to advocate for Conventional morality (early ideals and political adolescence): “Follow the rules causes. because we get along better if  Adolescents think everyone does the right thing.” about god, meaning, and purpose in Postconventional morality (later deeper terms than in adolescence and adulthood): childhood. “Sometimes rules need to be set aside to pursue higher principles.” 49  Example: looting after a natural disaster Which level of moral reasoning is involved? Looting is a problem; if everyone did it, there would be escalating chaos and greater damage to the economy. Looting is generally wrong, yet morally right when your family’s survival seems to depend on it. Looting is wrong because you might get punished, but if no one is punished, that’s a sign that it’s okay. 50  Moral Intuition  Jonathan Haidt believed moral An Example of Moral decisions are often driven by Intuition: moral intuition, that is, quick, Given a hypothetical gut‐feeling decisions. choice to save five people  This intuition is not just based from an oncoming trolley in moral reasoning but also in by killing one person, emotions such as: many people’s choice is  disgust. We may turn away determined not just by from choosing an action reasoning, but by disgust. because it feels awful. Many people would flip a  elevated feelings. We may switch to make this get a rewarding delight from choice, but not as many some moral behavior such would push a person on as donating to charity. the tracks to save five  https://www.youtube.com/ others. watch?v=q1VZMoT_p6w 51  Social Development: Erik Erikson (1902‐1994)  Erik Erikson’s model of lifelong psychosocial development sees adolescence as a struggle to form an identity, a sense of self, out of the social roles adolescents are asked to play.  Adolescents may try out different “selves” with peers, with parents, and with teachers.  For Erikson, the challenge in adolescence was to test and integrate the roles in order to prevent role confusion (which of those selves, or what combination, is really me?).  Some teens solve this problem simply by adopting one role, defined by parents or peers. 52 Erik Erikson: Stages of Psychosocial Development 53 Other Eriksonian stages on the minds of adolescents While currently in the identity vs. role confusion stage, adolescents have ideally just finished working through the tension of competence vs. inferiority. https://www.youtub e.com/watch?v=70yD o6cexyY They are ready after adolescence to take on the challenge of intimacy vs. isolation. 54 Adolescence, the sequel… Emerging Adulthood In some countries, added years of education and later marriage has delayed full adult independence beyond traditional adolescence. This seems to have created a new phase which can be called emerging adulthood, ages 18‐25. 55 Adulthood Is the rest of the developmental story just one long plateau of work and possibly raising kids?  Physical Development  physical decline  lifespan and death  sensory changes  Cognitive Development  memory  Social Development  commitments 56 Adult Physical Development  In our mid‐20’s, we reach a peak in the natural physical abilities which come with biological maturation:  muscular strength  cardiac output  reaction time  sensory sensitivity  To what extent can training overcome the decline that follows? 57 Physical Changes: Middle Adulthood The end the reproductive years Between ages 40 and 60, There is a gradual physical vitality (such as decline in sexual endurance and strength) activity in adulthood, may still be more of a although sexuality function of lifestyle than can continue of biological decline. throughout life. Around age 50, women enter menopause (the end Some of being able to get changes are pregnant). still driven by According to genetic evolutionary maturation, psychologists, why especially the might it make sense end of our for women’s fertility reproductive to end? years. 58  The Aging Body More Aged Women  Potential lifespan for the The rise in life expectancy, human body is estimated to combined with declining birth be about 122 years. rates, means a higher  Life expectancy refers to the percentage of the world’s average expected life span. population is old.  The worldwide average has More elderly people are increased from 49 in 1950 to women because more men die 69 in 2010. In 2012: than women at every age. By South Africa—49 age 100, women outnumber men by a ratio of 5 to 1. Cameroon—55 Pakistan—66 Thailand‐‐74 United States‐‐75 Ireland‐‐80 Australia—82 Japan‐‐84 59 Why don’t we live forever? Possible biological answers…  Nurture/Environment An accumulation of stress, damage, and disease wears us down until one of these factors kills us.  Genes Some people have genes that protect against some kinds of damage.  Even with great genes and environment, telomeres (the tips at the end of chromosomes) wear down with every generation of cell duplication and we stop healing well. 60 Physical Changes with Age The following abilities decline as we age: visual acuity, both sharpness and brightness hearing, especially sensing higher pitch reaction time and general motor abilities neural processing speed, especially for complex and novel tasks 61 Impact of Sensory and Motor Decline What specific factors and changes might explain the results below? Age 62 Health/Immunity Changes with Age The The bad good news news The immune system The immune system has declines with age, and a lifetime’s accumulation can have difficulty of antibodies, and does fighting off major well fighting off minor illnesses. illnesses. 63 Exercise Can Slow the Aging Process Exercise can: build muscles and bones. stimulate neurogenesis (in the hippocampus) and new neural connections. maintain telomeres. improve cognition. reduce the risk of dementia. 64 Changes in the Brain with Age  Myelin‐enhanced neural processing speed peaks in the teen years, and declines thereafter.  Regions of the brain related to memory begin to shrink with age, making it harder to form new memories.  The frontal lobes atrophy, leading eventually to decreased inhibition and self‐control.  By age 80, a healthy brain is 5 percent lighter than a brain in middle adulthood. 65 Alzheimer’s Disease and Other Dementias Dementia, including the Alzheimer’s type, is NOT a “normal” part of aging. Dementia Symptoms Brain Changes of decreased ability to recall Alzheimer’s Disease recent events and the names of loss of brain cells and neural familiar objects and people network connections emotional unpredictability; deterioration of neurons flat, then uninhibited, then that produce acetylcholine, angry the memory confusion, disorientation, and neurotransmitter eventual inability to think or shriveled and broken communicate protein filaments forming plaques at the tips of neurons dramatic shrinking of the 66 brain   Even without the brain changes of Cognitive dementia, there are some changes in our ability to learn, process, and recall Development and information.  The ability to recognize information, and Memory to use previous knowledge as expertise, does not decline with age. Can you describe and explain the differences in performance changes in these charts? 67 More Learning and Memory Changes  Rote memorization ability declines more than ability to learn meaningful information.  Prospective memory, planning to recall, (“I must remember to do…) also declines.  The ability to learn new skills declines less than the ability to learn new information. 68 Social Development in Adulthood Is adult social development driven by biological maturation or by life experiences and roles?  The “midlife crisis”‐‐re‐evaluating one’s life plan and success‐‐does not seem to peak at any age.  For the 25 percent of adults who do have this emotional crisis, the trigger seems to be the challenge of major illness, divorce, job loss, or parenting. 69 Psychosocial Development  Although the “midlife crisis” may not be a function of age, people do feel pressured by a “social clock” of achievement expectation.  Erik Erikson’s observations of age‐related issues: 70 Challenges of Healthy Adulthood Arising first: Erik Erikson’s Sigmund Freud intimacy issue used simpler (a.k.a. affiliation, terms, saying that attachment, the healthy adult connectedness) must find ways to love and to work. Arising later: Erik Erikson’s generativity issue (achievement, productivity, competence) 71  Commitment Commitment to Love to Work  The desire to commit to a  Work roles can largely define loving relationship may have adult identity, especially in evolved to help vulnerable individualistic capitalist human children survive long societies. enough to reproduce.  Tough economic times make it  Couples who go through difficult to find work, much less marriage/union ceremonies follow a career path. tend to stay together more  Work satisfaction seems to be a than couples who simply live function of having the work fit together. a person’s interests and  Marriage, compared to being providing a sense of single, is associated with competence and ‘happiness’ and with fewer accomplishment. social problems such as crime and child delinquency. 72  Why do people claim to be happy even as their body declines?  Older people attend less to negative information and more to positive information.  They are also more likely to have accumulated many mildly positive memories, which last longer than mildly negative memories.  Older people feel an increased sense of competence and control, and have greater stability in mood. 73 Coping with Death and Dying Individual responses to death may vary. Grief is more intense when death occurs unexpectedly (especially if also too early on the social clock).  There is NO standard pattern or length of the grieving process. It seems to help to have the support of friends or groups, and to face the reality of death and grief while affirming the value of life. 74  The Final Issue in Development: Stability and Change Are we essentially the same person over long periods? In general, temperament seems stable. Traits can vary, especially attitudes, coping strategies, work habits, and styles of socializing. Personality seems to stabilize with age. Stability helps us form identity, while the potential for change gives us control over our lives. 75