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The Whole Child: Development in the Early Years The Whole Child: Development in the Early Years DORIS BUCKLEY AND DEIRDRE BUDZYNA ROTEL (REMIXING OPEN TEXTBOOKS WITH AN EQUITY LENS) PROJECT HAVERHILL , MASSACHUSET TS The Whole Child: Development in the Earl...

The Whole Child: Development in the Early Years The Whole Child: Development in the Early Years DORIS BUCKLEY AND DEIRDRE BUDZYNA ROTEL (REMIXING OPEN TEXTBOOKS WITH AN EQUITY LENS) PROJECT HAVERHILL , MASSACHUSET TS The Whole Child: Development in the Early Years Copyright © 2023 by Doris Buckley and Deirdre Budzyna is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted. Contents Introduction 1 Land Acknowledgement 3 Historical nations 3 Present-day nations and tribes 3 Suggested readings 4 Chapter One: Perspectives on Early Childhood Childhood Defined 7 Periods of Development 7 Domains of Development 7 Historical Perspectives 9 History of Childhood 9 Emerging Themes 11 Cultural Perspectives 15 Developmentally Appropriate Practice 18 How do these previously discussed perspectives shape the way we raise and educate children? 18 How is Child Development Studied? 19 Chapter Two: Theorists and Theories of Development Theories of Development 23 Psychosocial Theory 24 Trust vs. Mistrust (Infancy) 25 Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt (Toddlerhood) 25 Initiative vs. Guilt (Preschool Years) 25 Industry vs. Inferiority (Elementary Years) 26 Identity vs. Role-Confusion (Adolescence) 26 Intimacy vs. Isolation (Early Adulthood) 26 Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle Adulthood) 26 Integrity vs. Despair (Older Adulthood) 27 Criticism of Psychosocial Theory 27 Educational Implications 28 Behaviorist Theory 30 Criticisms of Behaviorism 30 Educational Implications 31 Social Cognitive Theory 32 Criticism of Social Cognitive Theory 33 Educational Implications of Social Cognitive Theory 33 Cognitive Theory 35 Sensorimotor Development 35 Preoperational Development 36 Concrete Operational Development 36 Formal Operational Development 37 Criticisms of Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory 37 Educational Implications 37 Sociocultural Theory 39 Criticisms of Sociocultural Theory 39 Educational Implications 40 Humanistic Theory 41 Educational Implications 43 Criticisms of Humanistic Theory 43 Ecological Theory 45 Educational Implications 46 Criticisms of Educational Theory 46 Other Contemporary Theories to Consider 47 Theory of Multiple Intelligences 47 The Nine Intelligences 47 Bloom’s Taxonomy 49 Mindset Theory 50 Chapter Three: Domains in Development Themes of Development 55 Nature versus Nurture 55 Continuity versus Discontinuity 55 Universal versus Individual Development 55 Development versus Growth 56 The Four Domains of Development 57 Physical/Biological Development 58 Height and Weight 58 Gross and Fine Motor Skills 59 Universals in Physical Development 59 Cognitive Development 61 Memory 61 Intelligence 61 Language 62 An Interesting Example of Cognitive Development: Lying 63 Social Development 65 Friendship in Early Childhood 65 Theory of Mind 66 Emotional Development 67 Self-Regulation 68 Emotional Development 69 Chapter Four: Brain Development from Conception to Age 8 Biology of the Brain 73 Brain Cells: Neurons 73 The Main Structures of the Brain 77 Spinal Cord 77 Medulla Oblongata 77 Cerebellum 78 Pons 78 Midbrain 78 Cerebrum 78 Cerebral Cortex 79 Occipital Lobe 81 Parietal Lobe 81 Temporal Lobe 83 Frontal Lobe 84 Brain Development During Gestation 86 Brain Development in Infants and Toddlers 88 Brain Development in Preschool and School-Age Children 89 Chapter Five: Prenatal Development and Birth The Role of Genetics 93 Concerns in Conception 96 Gene-Linked Abnormalities 96 Prenatal Testing for Genetic Abnormalities 96 Other Concerns 97 The Germinal Period 98 Pregnancy Concerns 101 Risk Factors 101 Environmental Hazards 102 Medical Conditions 102 Other Concerns 103 Birth 104 After Birth 105 Chapter Six: Infancy Physical Development in Infancy 109 Infant Gross Motor Skills 111 Infant Fine Motor Skills 112 Cognitive Development in Infancy 114 Factors that Impact Cognitive Development 114 Language 115 Imitation 121 Memory 122 Media Attributions 122 Social and Emotional Development in Infancy 123 Chapter Seven: Toddlers (15 Months to 3 Years) Physical Development for Toddlers 127 Bowel and Bladder Control 127 Safety Concerns 128 Car Seat Safety 128 Immunizations 128 Cognitive Development for Toddlers 130 First Sentences: Language Development in Toddlerhood 130 Social and Emotional Development for Toddlers 131 Biting 131 Hitting/Scratching and Temper Tantrums 131 Toddler Property Laws Author Unknown 132 2-3 Year Milestones 133 Chapter Eight: Early Childhood Development Physical Development in Early Childhood 137 Growth in Height and Weight 137 Brain Development 137 Signs of Vision Problems 137 Gross Motor Skills 138 Fine Motor Skills 138 Young Children’s Artistic Drawings 139 Handedness 141 Sleep and Sleep Problems 141 Nutrition 141 Accident Prevention 142 Cognitive Development in Early Childhood 143 Vygotsky’s Theory of Development 144 Vygotsky vs. Piaget 145 Literacy in Early Childhood Education 145 Nourishing the Young Child’s Cognitive Development 145 Social and Emotional Development in Preschool 147 Emotional Development 147 Moral Development 147 Gender 148 Peer Influence 148 Teacher Influence 149 School and Media Influences 149 Child Abuse 149 Importance of Play 149 Social Development in Preschool: Friendship 150 Chapter Nine: School Age (5 Years to 8 Years) Physical Development in School Age 153 Overall Physical Growth 153 Brain Growth 153 Sports 153 Cognitive Development in School Age 155 Cognitive Growth 155 7-8 Year Olds 155 The Emergence of Concrete Operational Thought 155 Inductive Reasoning 156 Language & Literacy Development 156 Intelligence 156 Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences 157 When Development Looks Atypical 158 Conclusion Glossary 161 Grant Information 169 References 170 Thank you for choosing: The Whole Child for your textbook needs! This book was written specifically for the emerging child psychology student or early childhood educator in mind. The authors have taught both Child Psychology and Child Growth and Development throughout their careers as community college professors. They have also raised a total of six children, worked with children and schools internationally, and serve as educational consultants in a variety of settings. Deirdre and Doris desired a textbook that was both comprehensive and concise. Students do not need a lengthy volume to digest, but they do need a strong understanding of how a young child develops. Only with this understanding can developmentally appropriate practice emerge in the classroom and in other places that are loving and caring spaces for young children. We are so grateful for the many contributors to this textbook that have also brought their knowledge and expertise in working with children and teaching at the collegiate level. With the rising cost of textbooks, we are also committed to finding quality, accessible materials for our students. This text gives an overview of development, beginning in the mother’s womb through about the age of eight. It starts with a look at perspectives of early childhood, including how children have been viewed historically as well as cross-culturally. Following this chapter, there is a complete overview of the important theorists that have helped to deepen and bring clarity to how children develop. These theories include psychodynamic, behavioral, social cognitive theory, cognitive theory, humanistic, multiple intelligence, growth mindset, and Bloom’s taxonomy. Understanding the implications of each theory is important foundational knowledge for the study of development. Chapters Three and Four give an overview of the domains of development, followed by an overview of the developing brain. Chapter Five takes a look at the prenatal period, including the birth and postpartum process. Chapter Six describes development in infancy, and Chapter Seven describes the toddler years, including safety considerations that are critical for this period. Chapter Eight looks at the preschool years, including the role of peers, play, and television (and other electronics) in development. Chapter Nine concludes the text with a brief look at the start of what is known as the school-age years, universally recognized as between the ages of five and eight. As you prepare to start this journey, please enjoy this beautiful poem written by Diane Loomans. “If I had my child to raise over again: I’d build self-esteem first and the house later I’d finger paint more and point the finger less I would do less correcting and more connecting I’d take my eyes off my watch and watch with my eyes I would care to know less and know to care more I’d take more hikes and fly more kites I’d stop playing serious and seriously play I would run through more fields and gaze at more stars I’d do more hugging and less tugging I’d see the oak tree in the acorn more often I would be firm less often and affirm much more I’d model less about the love of power And more about the power of love.” Diane Loomans (2004) The years of early childhood are indeed so very special. Any parent will report that despite the challenges that often come with young children, the early years pass too quickly. It is our hope that you will gain valuable knowledge within this resource but also a renewed sense of purpose in discovering the amazing development of the whole child. With gratitude for all of the lessons young children continue to teach us, Introduction | 1  Deirdre & Doris 2 | Introduction Land Acknowledgement As part of the ROTEL Grant’s mission to support the creation, management, and dissemination of culturally- relevant textbooks, we must acknowledge Indigenous Peoples as the traditional stewards of the land, and the enduring relationship that exists between them and their traditional territories. We acknowledge that the boundaries that created Massachusetts were arbitrary and a product of the settlers. We honor the land on which the Higher Education Institutions of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts are sited as the traditional territory of tribal nations. We acknowledge the painful history of genocide and forced removal from their territory and other atrocities connected with colonization. We honor and respect the many diverse indigenous people connected to this land on which we gather, and our acknowledgment is one action we can take to correct the stories and practices that erase Indigenous People’s history and culture. Identified tribes and/or nations of Massachusetts Historical nations Mahican Mashpee Massachuset Nauset Nipmuc Pennacook Pocomtuc Stockbridge Wampanoag Present-day nations and tribes Mashpee Wampanoag Tribe Wampanoag Tribe of Gay Head Aquinnah Herring Pond Wampanoag Tribe Assawompsett-Nemasket Band of Wampanoags Pocasset Wampanoag of the Pokanoket Nation Pacasset Wampanoag Tribe Seaconke Wampanoag Tribe Chappaquiddick Tribe of the Wampanoag Indian Nation Nipmuc Nation (Bands include the Hassanamisco, Natick) Nipmuck Tribal Council of Chaubunagungamaug Massachusett Tribe at Ponkapoag In the event that we have an incorrect link or are missing an existing band/nation, please let us know so that we may correct our error. Land Acknowledgement | 3 Suggested readings Massachusetts Center for Native American Awareness A guide to Indigenous land acknowledgment ‘We are all on Native Land: A conversation about Land Acknowledgements’ YouTube video Native-Land.ca | Our home on native land (mapping of native lands) Beyond territorial acknowledgments – âpihtawikosisân Your Territorial Acknowledgment Is Not Enough 4 | Land Acknowledgement CHAPTER ONE: PERSPECTIVES ON EARLY CHILDHOOD After completing Chapter One students will be able to Identify areas in which children’s lives can be improved Describe historical views of child development Define biological, cognitive and social and emotional processes Outline the periods of development Explain cross-cultural beliefs about child development Describe how child development is studied Define developmentally appropriate practice Two-and-a-half-year-old Santiago sits at a small table, arms stretched out, hands limp. His teacher places a small chunk of banana with the skin on it in front of him. Santiago looks up at the teachers, smiles, and then picks up the banana in his fist. Using his right hand, index finger, and thumb, he slowly peels the banana, and then with a flat hand, shoves the whole piece into his mouth. As six-year-old Chloe paints, she looks at the postcard she is copying, being very careful to use the same colors in her painting as on the postcard. As she paints, she says to Johanna, “I’m using gold first because that’s my favorite, then the green”. Johanna passes the red paint and laughs, “Red’s last!” Chloe laughs, takes the pot of red paint, and begins to stir it vigorously. Three-month-old Zuri has a full head of darkest brown hair and thin, almost non-existent eyebrows. She has big brown eyes, full round cheeks, small ears, and a small nose. She has olive skin and a bald spot on the back of her head. Zuri does not yet have any teeth and seems to drool continuously. Her body is not proportional yet—her torso is full and round; she has tiny feet and long fingers. Zuri is twenty-two inches in length and weighs thirteen pounds. What do all of these children have in common? They are all developing “normally.” But what does that mean, and how can we be sure? The field of developmental psychology has sought to explore exactly those questions. Developmental Psychology is the study of how and why humans change throughout their lifespan. By studying sequences of typical development, we are able to make determinations about what might be considered expected and healthy, and what may be a red flag of atypical development or development that may be heading off track. In other words, it is only once we understand what typical, healthy development looks like that we are able to recognize atypical or unhealthy development, and then can intervene. Chapter One: Perspectives on Early Childhood | 5 6 | Chapter One: Perspectives on Early Childhood Childhood Defined Periods of Development As children move from infancy to young adulthood, they go through key periods of development. Ages and Stages is a term used to describe these periods of development. Although what defines these periods of childhood has varied widely throughout history and across cultures, The American Academy of Pediatrics defines these periods as follows: Prenatal Period which begins with conception and ends with birth Infancy which is marked by the months from birth through fifteen months Toddlerhood which encompasses sixteen months through a child’s third birthday Early Childhood, spanning three to five years of age Middle Childhood, which spans the ages of five to twelve Adolescence, which includes the ages of twelve to eighteen Each age and stage is characterized by its own set of expected characteristics and changes. As we seek to provide the best possible care and education for children, these distinct time periods provide a helpful framework in which to study childhood (Bee & Boyd, 2009; Berk, 2017; Childhood defined, n.d.). Domains of Development Within these five time periods, we are then able to study primary areas in which change occurs, referred to as the domains of development. We will examine child development across four major domains: Physical/ Biological, Cognitive (including intelligence), Social (relationships and self-awareness), and Emotional (encompassing internal states such as temperament, emotional regulation, and understanding the emotions of others). Growth vs. Development In talking about child development, it’s important to keep in mind that growth and development do not refer to the same processes, although they are often used interchangeably. Development refers to overall changes that occur that result in improved functioning or achievement (for example, cognitive development, social development). Growth refers specifically to physical or biological changes that occur. Growth can be directly observed and measured. In this chapter, we will explore Childhood Defined | 7  definitions of childhood the areas of development that developmental psychologists study the historical and cultural contexts we need to understand when studying development the difference between growth and development various themes which emerge when studying child development how child development is studied 8 | Childhood Defined Historical Perspectives History of Childhood Throughout Ancient Times, the Middle Ages, and most of Early Modern History, the idea of childhood as we understand it today didn’t exist. In part because of the hardships of life in general, and in part because of very high infant and child mortality rates (primarily due to malnutrition, disease, and general lack of access to medical care), the way families viewed childhood was fundamentally different from the way it is viewed now. Before the 16th century, the focus of families was on survival. A child’s value was in their ability to contribute toward that goal. It wasn’t until the late 1500’s that the idea of a need for education of the common man emerged. Until this point, it was primarily only those who intended to enter the clergy or become government officials or physicians who received any kind of formal education. As societies developed and progressed, they began to recognize the value of developing a skilled workforce. As a result, families began to need support in providing an education for their children, and the first of what could be recognized as modern schools were established. It had been widely believed that until modern times, children were primarily treated with indifference, dealt with harshly, and regarded as miniature adults. This argument, which was famously made by French historian Philippe Ariès (1914–1984) in his 1960 book titled, Centuries of Childhood, has since been disputed. Ariès came to this conclusion after studying historical writings about childhood (or lack thereof) and paintings depicting children through the Middle Ages. However, it is now understood that the depiction of children in pre-18th century art as miniature adults was not at all due to any lack of regard or affection parents had for their children. According to Alastair Sooke, in his article for the BBC, “How Childhood Came to Fascinate Artists”, Ariès’ thinking was flawed for two key reasons: Painting by Lavinia Fontana depicting Bianca degli Utili Maselli, holding a dog and surrounded by six of her children (c. 1565–1614). Historical Perspectives | 9 Pictures of children were surprisingly rare during the late Middle Ages and even into the 16th Century. In those days, the infant Jesus was the principal image of childhood in art. For another, when artists finally started to paint children with greater frequency during the 17th Century, they did so in a way that seems unnatural to modern eyes, by presenting them as miniature adults. (Sooke, 2016) Painting by Pieter Bruegel the Elder called Children’s Games (c. 1560). He goes on to explain that paintings of the children of nobility (because they were the only ones who could afford to have their portraits painted) served a different purpose than snapping a photo of a child today; it was not meant to capture a moment in time. Rather, children were often dressed and posed as adults in an effort to depict their parents’ hopes for the person they would become. For royalty, these portraits became important advertisements to potential suitors. It was, in reality, a very early form of the personal profile. Our current notions of childhood are primarily rooted in the works of 17th-century English philosopher John Locke and of 18th-century Swiss philosopher Jean Jacques Rousseau. Locke (1632-1714) is probably most famous for his notion of children coming into the world as a tabula rasa, a Latin term translated as “blank slate”. He believed that infants were neither inherently good nor inherently evil (as was commonly believed at the time—a reference to the church’s teachings of original sin) but rather were neutral or “blank”. A child’s nature and personality would develop over childhood, during which time he believed a child was particularly impressionable and sensitive to new experiences. Because he believed that children were born with no set predeterminations and since the child’s mind was so malleable, an adult could mold him or her with careful diligence. Many of his ideas about education endure today, most notably: Each person develops according to his or her unique experiences, and thus the need for individualized education Learning should be enjoyable, with many opportunities for play 10 | Historical Perspectives  Educators should focus on teaching critical thinking skills Children learn best through sensory experiences Rousseau’s (1712-1778) philosophy of education emphasizes the development of a child’s character and moral sense. The goal was for the child to learn to remain principled and honorable, even in the unnatural and imperfect society in which the child would have to live. He also believed that children should learn through exploration and experiences carefully led by adults. This philosophy was predicated upon the idea that children were born inherently good, not inherently wild or evil (or even neutral, as Locke believed). This was all very radical thinking for the time. Some of Rousseau’s ideas that continue to influence education today are: Teaching should be flexible and responsive Children learn best from hands-on experiences Children’s thinking is different from adults’ Children go through distinct phases of development Locke and Rousseau helped to pave the way for what we consider our modern ideas about education. Many other early educational pioneers used Locke’s and Rousseau’s groundbreaking work as the foundation for even more progressive ideas about childhood and education. Examples include: Integrated curriculum and the need for educating the whole child (the belief that all aspects of human growth and development are interrelated)—Johann Pestalozzi Expansion of education to infants and toddlers—Robert Owen Play as the most important construct for learning, and the importance of creating play experiences that reflect the natural world in which children live. These ideas became the foundations for kindergarten— Freidrich Froebel Child-centered education and intentional teaching—John Dewey (Sooke, 2016) Emerging Themes Nature and Nurture As we reflect on these ideas about childhood throughout Western history, we see that distinct themes of development begin to emerge. Probably the most well-known is the theme of nature vs. nurture. This refers to the debate within developmental psychology concerned with examining whether certain characteristics and aspects of behavior are primarily the result of biological programming and inheritance (nature) or whether they are learned and the product of experience (nurture). Proponents of the nature view of development believe that humans develop based on a predetermined genetic plan that we inherit from our parents. Examples of this thinking can be seen, perhaps most famously, in the work of Charles Darwin and his theories of evolution, but also in later theorists such as Arnold Gesell (Bee & Boyd, 2009; Berk, 2017; Childhood defined, n.d.). Proponents of the nurture view of development believe that humans develop based on the influences and experiences we collect over our lifetime, regardless of genetic makeup. Some of the most enduring theories of the nurture view of development stem from the works of John Watson, B.F. Skinner and Albert Bandura, whom we’ll explore in chapter two. Historical Perspectives | 11 As you will see throughout this text, it is the interplay among all these factors that ultimately results in who we become. As Dr. David Rettew explains in his post “Nature Versus Nurture: Where We Are in 2017” for Psychology Today: Today, most scientists who carefully examine the ever-expanding research base have come to appreciate that the nature and nurture domains are hopelessly interwoven with one another. Genes have an influence on the environments we experience. At the same time, a person’s environment and experience can directly change the level at which certain genes are expressed (a rapidly evolving area of research called epigenetics), which in turn alters both the physical structure and activity of the brain. (Rettew, 2017) Embedded in the debate over nature and nurture are notions of stability and change— that is, ideas about how changeable and/or prone to influence, development and behavior are—as well as notions of universal vs. individual development. These debates seek to answer questions such as: Can patterns of behavior change? Can certain genetic and/or environmental influences be overcome? What accounts for individual differences in development? Why does human development seem to follow certain universal, predictable patterns? Continuous and Discontinuous Development Another debated controversy in the field of human development is the idea of continuous vs. discontinuous sequences of development. Continuous development refers to the idea that development occurs as the result of a continual maturation process—a steady unfolding of changes throughout the lifetime. This type of development can be thought of as similar to that of a tree. The organism (in this case, a tree) gradually develops and changes over time, but maintains the same primary characteristics and functions as it did before—just larger and more complex. Discontinuous development refers to the idea that development occurs in distinct stages, each stage being fundamentally different from the preceding or following stages. This type of development is similar to that of a butterfly. At each stage of a butterfly’s life (egg, caterpillar, chrysalis, adult), the butterfly is very different from any other stage, and yet it is still a butterfly (Bee & Boyd, 2009; Berk, 2017; Childhood defined, n.d.). In Chapter Two, we will explore more deeply how theories of development can fall into these categories of being either continuous or discontinuous. 12 | Historical Perspectives Risk and Resilience A more contemporary debate that has arisen around educating and caring for children has to do with how we view risk and resilience. Conventional wisdom dictated that it was in children’s best interests to try to limit (as much as possible) their exposure to any form of adversity or loss. While most agree that it is, in fact, in children’s best interests to protect them from any kind of trauma, tragedy, threat, or significant stress, in recent decades, it seems that the pendulum has swung too far in the direction of insulating children from any and all forms of stress and loss. However, it is through this stress and loss that children learn to cope with future stress and loss, thus becoming resilient. Rather than using the everyone-gets-a-trophy strategy of rewarding children, we have come to understand that genuine and authentic praise serves children much better. It’s important to keep in mind that resilience is not a trait that people either have or do not have. It involves behaviors, thoughts, and actions that can be learned and developed. When children experience adversity—whether it be the loss of a parent or not making the team—helping them to frame the experience as one they can survive helps them for the next encounter. It becomes a positive feedback loop; adversity helps children to learn resilience, which then helps children to be more resilient in the face of future adversity. The key is in helping them learn effective coping strategies and supporting them through the resilience process. The American Psychological Association provides more information in their publication, “Resilience Guide for Teachers and Parents”, which can be found on their website (APA, 2012). Historical Perspectives | 13 Media Attributions Bianca degli Utili Maselli, holding a dog (c. 1565–1614) © Lavinia Fontana, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons is licensed under a Public Domain license Children’s Games (c. 1560) © Pieter Brueghel the Elder, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons is licensed under a Public Domain license Nature vs Nurture diagram © Deirdre Budzyna via. ROTEL is licensed under a CC BY-SA (Attribution ShareAlike) license Discontinuous development © Wikimedia and Public Domain images. net is licensed under a CC BY-SA (Attribution ShareAlike) license Risk and Resilience © Deirdre Budzyna via. ROTEL is licensed under a CC BY-SA (Attribution ShareAlike) license 14 | Historical Perspectives Cultural Perspectives It’s valuable to take into consideration that these themes are based upon what is commonly referred to as “WEIRD” societies, that is societies which are Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich and Democratic. American society certainly falls within this description, but by no means do all societies. Childhood actually has different meanings around the world. Depending on various cultures’ shared patterns of behaviors, interactions and understandings, we see different constructs of childhood emerge. The following articles: “Different Cultures, Different Childhoods” (Montgomery, 2013) from The Open University, and “A Cross-Cultural Perspective on Childhood” (2018) from Human Relations Area Files (HRAF) provide some eye-opening examples of these differences in beliefs about childhood. Despite these differences, in 1989 the United Nations General Assembly adopted the first human rights treaty which articulates basic universal civil, political, economic, social, health and cultural rights of children, known as the Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC). According to the United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF), the Convention: Defined childhood as a separate space from adulthood and recognized that what is appropriate for an adult may not be suitable for a child. Called on governments to provide material assistance and support to families and to prevent children from being separated from their parents. Recognized that children are the holders of their own rights and are therefore not passive recipients of charity but empowered actors in their own development. As a direct result of the policies that were able to be put in place in the years since the Convention was adopted, the world has seen significant improvement in the quality of life for children. Almost unbelievably, as of the writing of this text, the United States is the only member of the United Nations that has not ratified the treaty. It is believed that this is the case because of very powerful lobbying by special interest groups. Cultural Perspectives | 15 16 | Cultural Perspectives Media Attributions UN Convention Rights of the Child © UNICEF is licensed under a Public Domain license Cultural Perspectives | 17 Developmentally Appropriate Practice How do these previously discussed perspectives shape the way we raise and educate children? In 1989, The National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) set out to answer just this question. NAEYC published its first position statement related to Developmentally Appropriate Practice (DAP), and while many other advocacy agencies have also sought to define developmentally appropriate practice, NAEYC’s position is considered the gold standard and most widely accepted. NAEYC has since updated its position in order to remain current with and responsive to new research developments. According to NAEYC, Developmentally Appropriate Practice (DAP) is a framework designed to promote young children’s optimal learning and development. To make decisions that reflect best practices, educators take into consideration what they know about: child development and learning each child as an individual each child’s social and cultural context These three guiding principles are used in all high-quality early childhood programs and are reflected throughout this text (NAEYC, 2022). 18 | Developmentally Appropriate Practice How is Child Development Studied? Researchers use three primary methods in studying development in order to draw their conclusions: longitudinal studies cross-sectional studies case studies Longitudinal Studies refer to studies in which a large group of children is studied over time in order to look at specific changes that occur. Longitudinal studies may examine a single aspect of development or multiple aspects at once. Data is collected at two or more different time intervals, but typically the study looks at development multiple times over the course of several months or even over an entire lifetime. While some of the most valuable data about development has been gained through the use of longitudinal studies, because these studies are so comprehensive and lengthy, they tend to be very expensive to carry out and can take decades to be able to draw any concrete conclusions. Ultimately, longitudinal studies aim to draw conclusions that can be generalized over a population. Cross-Sectional Studies refer to studies in which comparisons are made in the abilities and behaviors of two or more groups of children, each group being of a different age; for example, comparing the language skills of two-year-olds to the language skills of five-year-olds in order to come to some conclusion about the changes that occur between the ages of two and five. An advantage of this type of study is that it is typically less costly to carry out because the studies can be held over a very short timeframe—researchers don’t have to wait for children to get older. A drawback to these studies is that researchers are comparing more apples to oranges, rather than apples to apples. Case studies refer to investigations in which a single child or small group of children are studied. Case studies are far more in-depth and detailed than longitudinal studies, include the related contextual conditions in which development is observed, and draw upon data from multiple sources. Because case studies apply only to a single or very small group of individuals, the results typically cannot be generalized to a larger population (Berk, 2017; Crain, 2011). When looking at data from various types of studies, it’s essential to understand the difference between a correlation and a causation. Notable market analyst, Ben Yaskovitz, describes the difference as, “Correlation helps you predict the future, because it gives you an indication of what’s going to happen. Causality lets you change the future.” (Yaskovitz, 2013) Correlation describes the relationship among two or more variables that appear to be related to one another, but one does not necessarily cause the other to occur. For example, there is a correlation between ice cream consumption and drowning (Yaskovitz, 2013). It seems that ice cream consumption rises and falls with the rate of drownings. However, there is nothing about eating ice cream that causes people to drown. In this case, it seems that there is another factor involved—weather. In certain climates and during certain seasons, people tend to consume more ice cream. More people in those climates and during those seasons tend also to be engaged in water -related activities, and the more people involved in water-related activities, the more drownings that tend to occur. The two factors are related but one does not cause the other to happen. A more famous mistaken correlation was that between unpleasant odors and disease. Until the late 19th century, before people fully understood microbiology and disease processes, it was believed that bad odors actually caused disease—unpleasant-smelling air appeared to make people sick, so the two occurrences were correlated. Of course, we now understand that it’s not the odor that makes people sick, but rather the factors leading to the odor that do. (ex. It’s not the smell of spoiled milk that will make you sick, but the bacteria in the milk that produces the smell that will.) How is Child Development Studied? | 19  Causation describes a relationship among two or more variables in which one occurs as the direct result of another. One thing causes another. For example, the way that gravity causes things to fall toward the ground. Even in the field of child development, there have been many examples of occurrences in which a correlational relationship was mistaken for a causational one; it’s critical to recognize the difference between the two when drawing conclusions about children’s development and behavior (Santrock, 2013). Did you know… A little stress can actually be good for you? Studies show that with a little bit of stress, people actually have improved performance on various tasks. We seem to work better when we are under just the right amount of pressure to succeed. A little stress helps to keep us focused and motivated, but too much can tip the scales and we can find ourselves fatigued, anxious, or even burnt out. Keep this in mind as you progress throughout this course and also as you work with children—it’s healthy to strive for success and to be slightly out of your comfort zone. The graph below helps to illustrate this phenomenon. Media Attributions Stress Performance Curve © Doris Buckley via. the ROTEL Project is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA (Attribution NonCommercial ShareAlike) license 20 | How is Child Development Studied? CHAPTER TWO: THEORISTS AND THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT After completing Chapter Two students will be able to: Explain the value of understanding child development theories Describe several developmental theories and the theorists who pioneered them including: ◦ o Psychodynamic Theory ◦ o Behaviorist Theory ◦ o Social Cognitive Theory ◦ o Cognitive Theory ◦ o Sociocultural Theory ◦ o Humanist Theory ◦ o Ecological Theory ◦ o Multiple Intelligence Theory ◦ o Growth Mindset Theory ◦ o Bloom’s Taxonomy Understand the educational implications of each theory Chapter Two: Theorists and Theories of Development | 21 22 | Chapter Two: Theorists and Theories of Development Theories of Development The study of child growth and development is a rich and varied subject. Child development theories focus on explaining how children grow and change from conception through childhood. Theories of development provide a framework for thinking about child growth and learning. Why do children behave in certain ways? How can we as educators better understand and support children’s behavior? It is important to study how children develop. An understanding of child development allows us to gain a deeper understanding of the physical, cognitive, social, and emotional growth that children experience. This chapter will focus on psychosocial, behaviorist, social cognitive, cognitive, sociocultural, humanistic, ecological, growth mindset, and multiple intelligence theories and their impact on a child’s development, with an emphasis on strengthening teaching and learning. Theories of Development | 23 Psychosocial Theory Erik H. Erikson (1902-1994), was a German-born, world-renowned scholar of the behavioral sciences. Erikson is one of the few theorists of his time to address development through the entire lifespan, not just childhood. As our society as a whole is becoming increasingly older, and thus there is an increasing need to understand individuals as they advance into old age, Erikson’s views are even more valuable and relevant today than when he first proposed them. Erikson is, perhaps, best known for his theory of psychosocial development. Having studied psychoanalysis (the prevailing theory of personality development at the time) Erikson began to shift from Freud’s emphasis on psychosexual crises to one of psychosocial conflicts. Drawing upon Sigmund Freud’s basic psychosexual theories, Anna Freud’s explorations in the psychological development of children, and his own experience as an educator, he developed a theory which outlined eight distinct stages of development over the lifespan. According to Erikson’s theory, each of the eight stages of his psychosocial theory is characterized by a different psychosocial crisis of two conflicting forces. Because each stage builds upon the successful completion of earlier stages, any unresolved challenges of a particular stage will most likely resurface as problems later in an individual’s development. In this way, the outcomes of each stage are not permanent and can be modified by later experiences as challenges are re-confronted. Although his stages seem to align with periods of development, they are not necessarily perfectly sequential; it is possible to move from one stage up to another, and then at some point, move back down to a previous stage. For example, imagine a scenario in which you are an adult in the generativity vs. stagnation stage, having successfully resolved all the previous stages, when you find out that your spouse has cheated on you, and you decide to get a divorce. In this case, it would be perfectly expected that you would again be struggling with issues of trust, intimacy, and possibly even identity. Your success or failure at resolving these struggles previously will, in part, determine your resilience during this challenge. Beginning in infancy, his eight stages (from bottom to top) are: 24 | Psychosocial Theory Trust vs. Mistrust (Infancy) The first stage of Erik Erikson’s theory centers around an infant’s basic needs being met by its caregivers, and this interaction leads to trust or mistrust. Trust, as defined by Erikson, is an essential belief in the reliability of others, as well as a fundamental sense of one’s own trustworthiness. The infant depends on its caregivers, typically its mother, for sustenance and comfort. At this stage, the child’s relative understanding of the world and society comes directly from its caregivers and their interaction with the child. A child’s first trust is always with its caregiver, whoever that might be. If caregivers expose an infant to warmth, regularity, and dependable affection, the infant’s view of the world will be one of trust. Should caregivers fail to provide a secure environment or to meet the child’s basic needs, a sense of mistrust will result (Bee & Boyd, 2009). Development of mistrust can lead to feelings of frustration, suspicion, withdrawal, and a lack of confidence throughout childhood, as well as later in life. According to Erik Erikson, the major developmental task in infancy is to learn whether or not other people, especially primary caregivers, regularly satisfy basic needs. If caregivers are consistent sources of food, comfort, and affection, an infant learns trust (i.e., others are dependable and reliable). If they are neglectful, or perhaps even abusive, the infant instead learns mistrust (i.e., the world is an undependable, unpredictable, and possibly a dangerous place). The child’s number one need in this stage is to feel safe, comforted, and well cared for (Bee & Boyd, 2009). Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt (Toddlerhood) As children gain increasing control over their motor abilities, they begin to move around and explore their surroundings. Trusting caregivers provide a strong, secure base from which children can venture out to assert their will and newfound independence. Caregivers’ patience and encouragement help to foster a sense of autonomy—or independence. Highly restrictive caregivers, caregivers who demand too much self-regulation too soon, caregivers who refuse to let children perform tasks of which they are capable, or discourage early attempts at self-sufficiency, instill in children a sense of shame and doubt in their ability to handle new challenges. As a result, children learn to withdraw from their world. Initiative vs. Guilt (Preschool Years) The development of courage and independence are what set preschoolers, ages three to six years of age, apart from other age groups. Young children in this category face the challenge of initiative versus guilt. As described by Bee and Boyd (2009), the child during this stage faces the complexities of planning and developing a sense of judgment. Because this sense of planning and judgment is still developing, along with initiative, sometimes negative behaviors (such as throwing objects, hitting, or yelling) can also emerge. These behaviors are often the result of the child’s frustration in not being able to achieve a goal as planned. Sometimes preschoolers take on projects they can readily accomplish, but at other times they undertake projects that are beyond their capabilities or that interfere with other people’s plans and activities. If caregivers and preschool teachers encourage and support children’s efforts, while also helping them make realistic and appropriate choices, children develop a healthy sense of initiative in planning and undertaking activities. If, instead, adults discourage the pursuit of independent activities or dismiss them as silly and bothersome, children develop guilt about their needs and desires. Psychosocial Theory | 25 Industry vs. Inferiority (Elementary Years) The failure to master trust, autonomy, and initiative may cause the child to doubt themselves, leading to feelings of shame, guilt, defeat, and/or inferiority. Children at this age are becoming more aware of themselves as individuals; they work hard at being responsible, being good, and “doing it right.” At this stage, children are very eager to learn and accomplish progressively complex skills, such as reading, writing, telling time, etc. Erikson viewed the elementary school years as particularly critical for the development of self-confidence. Ideally, elementary school provides many opportunities to achieve the recognition of teachers, caregivers, and peers by producing things—drawing pictures, solving addition problems, writing sentences, and so on. If children are encouraged to make and do things and are then praised for their accomplishments, they begin to demonstrate industry by being diligent, persevering at tasks until completed, and putting work before pleasure. If children are, instead, ridiculed or punished for their efforts or if they find they are incapable of meeting their teachers’ and caregivers’ expectations, they develop feelings of inferiority about their capabilities (Crain, 2011). Identity vs. Role-Confusion (Adolescence) As adolescents become newly concerned with how they appear to others, the need to settle on an identity becomes an increasing priority. As they make the transition from childhood to adulthood, adolescents ponder the roles they will play in the adult world. Initially, they are apt to experience some role-confusion—mixed ideas and feelings about the specific ways in which they will fit into society, and they may experiment with a variety of behaviors, social groups, and activities. Erikson is credited with coining the term identity crisis to explain the negotiation of this particular challenge. Eventually, Erikson proposed, most adolescents achieve a sense of identity regarding who they are and where their lives are headed. The teenager must achieve a sense of identity in career, gender roles, politics, and religion, among others. This stage is considered to be a turning point in human development because it marks the transition from childhood to adulthood, and more specifically, seems to be the reconciliation between the person one has come to be and the person society expects one to become. In relation to the eight life stages as a whole, the fifth stage corresponds to a crossroads. Intimacy vs. Isolation (Early Adulthood) At the start of this stage, identity vs. role confusion is coming to an end though it still lingers at the foundation of this stage (Erikson, 1950). Young adults are still eager to blend their identities with friends; they want to fit in. Once people have established their identities, they are ready to make long-term commitments to others. They become capable of forming intimate, reciprocal relationships (for example, through close friendships or marriage) and willingly make the sacrifices and compromises that such relationships require. If people cannot form these relationships of intimacy (perhaps because of their own needs), a sense of isolation may result, provoking feelings of darkness and angst. Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle Adulthood) The stage of generativity has broad applications for family relationships, work, and society. “Generativity, then, 26 | Psychosocial Theory is primarily the concern in establishing and guiding the next generation... the concept is meant to include... productivity and creativity” (Erikson, 1950, p. 240). In other words, during middle adulthood, the primary developmental task is one of contributing to society and helping to guide future generations. Socially-valued work and disciplines are expressions of generativity. As a person experiences successes during this stage, perhaps by raising a family or working toward the betterment of society, a sense of generativity—of productivity and accomplishment—results. In contrast, a person who is self-centered and unable or unwilling to help society move forward develops a feeling of stagnation or dissatisfaction with his or her relative lack of productivity Berk, 2017). Integrity vs. Despair (Older Adulthood) As we grow older and become senior citizens, we tend to slow down our productivity and explore life as retired people. It is during this time that we contemplate our accomplishments and are able to develop integrity if we see ourselves as leading a successful life. If we see our life as unproductive or feel that we did not accomplish our life goals, we become dissatisfied with life and develop a sense of despair, often leading to depression and hopelessness. This stage may manifest itself out of sequence when individuals feel they are near the end of their lives (such as when receiving a terminal disease diagnosis) (Santrock, 2013). Criticism of Psychosocial Theory Erikson’s theory may be questioned as to whether his stages must be regarded as sequential and only occurring within the age ranges he suggests. There is debate as to whether people only search for identity during the Psychosocial Theory | 27 adolescent years or if one stage needs to happen before other stages can be completed. Erikson himself states that each of these processes occurs throughout the lifetime in one form or another, and he emphasizes these periods only because it is at these times that the conflicts become most prominent (Erikson, 1956). Educational Implications Teachers who apply psychosocial development in the classroom create an environment where each child feels appreciated and is comfortable with learning new things and building relationships with peers. At the preschool level, teachers want to focus on helping children develop healthy personalities and Find out what students are interested in and create projects that incorporate their area of interest. Make sure to point out and praise students for good choices. Offer continuous, authentic feedback. Not ridicule or criticize students. They should find a private place to talk with a child about a poor choice or behavior. Help students formulate their own alternate choices by guiding them to a more positive solution and outcome. When children experiment, they should not be punished for trying something that may turn out differently from what the teacher had planned. At the elementary level, teachers should focus on achievement and peer relationships and Create a list of classroom duties that need to be completed on a scheduled basis. Ask students for their input when creating the list, as well as giving them a say in who will be in charge of what. Discuss and post classroom rules. Make sure to include students in the decision-making process when discussing rules. Encourage students to think outside of their day-to-day routine by role-playing different situations. Let students know that striving for perfection is not as important as learning from mistakes. Teach children resilience. Encourage children to help students who may be having trouble socially and/or academically. Never allow any child to make fun of or bully another child. Build confidence by recognizing success in what children do best. Provide a variety of choices when making an assignment so that students can express 28 | Psychosocial Theory  themselves with a focus on their strengths. Media Attributions Psychosocial theory © Deirdre Budzyna via. ROTEL is licensed under a CC BY-SA (Attribution ShareAlike) license Old Man © Pixabay is licensed under a CC0 (Creative Commons Zero) license Psychosocial Theory | 29 Behaviorist Theory Behaviorism is primarily concerned with observable and measurable aspects of human behavior. In defining behavior, behaviorist learning theories emphasize changes in behavior that result from stimulus–response associations made by the learner. Behaviorists assert that the only behaviors worthy of study are those that can be directly observed; thus, it is actions, rather than thoughts or emotions, which are the legitimate object of study. Behaviorist theory does not explain abnormal behavior in terms of the brain or its inner workings. Rather, it posits that all behavior is learned habits, and attempts to account for how these habits are formed. In assuming that human behavior is learned, behaviorists also hold that all behaviors can also be unlearned and replaced by new behaviors; that is, when a behavior becomes unacceptable, it can be replaced by an acceptable one. A key element of this theory of learning is the rewarded response. The desired response must be rewarded for learning to take place (Parkay & Hass, 2000). John B. Watson (1878-1958) and B. F. Skinner (1904-1990) are the two principal originators of behaviorist approaches to learning. Watson’s basic premise was that conclusions about human development should be based on observation of overt behavior rather than speculation about subconscious motives or latent cognitive processes (Shaffer, 2000). Watson’s view of learning was based in part on the studies of Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936). Pavlov was well known for his research on a learning process called classical conditioning. Classical conditioning refers to learning that occurs when a neutral stimulus (an unassociated signal) becomes associated with a stimulus that naturally produces a behavior, such as a reflex or innate behavior. Pavlov noticed that dogs salivated shortly before they were given food. He discovered that when the bell was rung at repeated feedings, the sound of the bell alone (a conditioned stimulus) would cause the dogs to salivate (a conditioned response). Skinner believed that human behavior is predictable, just like a chemical reaction. He believed that people don’t shape the world, but instead, the world shapes them. Expanding on Watson’s basic stimulus-response model, Skinner developed a more comprehensive view of conditioning, known as operant conditioning. His model was based on the premise that satisfying responses are conditioned, while unsatisfying ones are not. Operant conditioning is the rewarding of a desired behavior or act that approaches it. Skinner remarked that “the things we call pleasant have an energizing or strengthening effect on our behavior” (Skinner, 1972, p. 74). Through Skinner’s research on animals, he concluded that both animals and humans would repeat acts that led to favorable outcomes and suppress those that produced unfavorable results (Shaffer, 2000). If a rat presses a bar and receives a food pellet, he will be likely to press it again. Skinner defined the bar-pressing response as operant (the learned voluntary response), and the food pellet as a positive reinforcer. Punishments, on the other hand, are consequences that suppress a response and decrease the likelihood that it will occur in the future. If the rat had been shocked every time it pressed the bar, that behavior would cease. Skinner believed the habits that each of us develop result from our unique operant learning experiences (Shaffer, 2000). Negative reinforcement can be used as a strategy to encourage certain behaviors. Defined, negative reinforcement is the encouragement of certain behaviors by removing or avoiding a negative outcome or stimuli. An alarm clock is an example of a negative reinforcer. In order to stop the buzzing, you need to wake up! Another example is the beeping car manufacturers install that go off until you fasten your seatbelt (Jordan, 2022). Criticisms of Behaviorism Behaviorism can be critiqued as an overly deterministic view of human behavior that ignores internal psychological and mental processes; behaviorism oversimplifies the complexity of human behavior. The 30 | Behaviorist Theory behaviorist approach has also been criticized for its inability to account for learning or changes in behavior that occur in the absence of environmental input. Lastly, research has shown that the principles of conditioning are not universal; the link between stimulus and response is not just a simple, direct, cause-and-effect relationship. Factors beyond the stimulus are involved in determining the response. A complete understanding of human behavior would need to include not just actions, but the inner life of the mind as well. Educational Implications Behaviorist techniques have long been employed in education to promote behavior that is desirable and discourage that which is not. Among the methods derived from behaviorist theory for practical classroom application are contracts, consequences, reinforcement, extinction, and behavior modification. Using behaviorist theory in the classroom can be rewarding for both students and teachers. Behavioral change occurs for a reason; students work for things that bring them positive feelings approval from people they admire. They change behaviors to satisfy the desires they have learned to value. They generally avoid behaviors they associate with unpleasantness and develop habitual behaviors from those that are repeated often (Parkay & Hass, 2000). The entire rationale of behavior modification is that most behavior is learned. If behaviors can be learned, then they can also be unlearned or relearned. A behavior that goes unrewarded will be extinguished. Consistently ignoring an undesirable behavior will go far toward eliminating it. Other successful classroom strategies are contracts, consequences, punishment, and others that have been described in detail earlier. Behaviorist learning theory is not only important in achieving desired behavior in mainstream education but also in other behavior. Advocates of behaviorism have effectively adopted this system of rewards and punishments in their classrooms by rewarding desired behaviors and punishing inappropriate ones. Rewards can vary widely and must be important to the learner in some way. As with all teaching methods, success depends on each student’s individual stimulus and response. Media Attributions Children taking pictures © Pixabay is licensed under a CC BY (Attribution) license Behaviorist Theory | 31 Social Cognitive Theory Albert Bandura (1925-) is perhaps most famous for his Bobo Doll experiments in the 1960s. At the time there was a popular belief that learning was a result of reinforcement. In the Bobo Doll experiments, Bandura presented children with examples of violent behavior or non-violent behavior towards the inflatable Bobo Doll. Children who viewed the violent behavior were in turn violent towards the doll; the control group was rarely violent towards the doll. That became Bandura’s social learning theory in the 1960s, a learning theory based on the idea that people learn by observing and interacting with others. It is often called a bridge between behaviorist and cognitive learning theories because it encompasses attention, memory, and motivation. Social learning is also commonly referred to as observational learning, because it comes about as a result of observing models. Bandura became interested in social aspects of learning at the beginning of his career. Early theories considered behavior to be a function of the interaction between a person and their environment. Bandura believed that behavior itself influences both the person and the environment, each of which in turn affects behavior and each other; the result is a complex interplay of factors. Social learning theory emphasizes that behavior, personal factors, and environmental factors are all equal, interlocking determinants of each other. The top four images above show scenes of adults acting aggressively toward Bandura’s doll. Children were shown these scenes, then left in a room with the doll and observed. The center and bottom rows of images show how two children emulated the behaviors they had just seen. Bandura and his colleagues continued to show that social modeling is a very effective way of learning and went on to expand motivational and cognitive processes on social learning theory. In 1986, Bandura published his second book Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A Social Cognitive Theory, which expanded and renamed his original theory. He called the new theory Social Cognitive Theory (SCT). Bandura changed the name social learning theory to social cognitive theory to emphasize the major role cognition plays in encoding and performing behaviors. In this book, Bandura (1986) argued that human behavior is caused by personal, behavioral, and environmental influences. The theory states that when people observe a model performing a behavior, along with the consequences of that behavior, they remember the sequence of events and use this information to guide subsequent behaviors. Depending on whether people are rewarded or punished for their 32 | Social Cognitive Theory behavior and the outcome of the behavior, the observer may choose to replicate behavior modeled (Berk, 2017; Crain, 2011; Santrock, 2013). Media provides models for a vast array of people in many different environmental settings. HOT TOPIC: Violence in Media There is still much debate over the influence exposure to media violence has on behavior, especially for children. These articles offer views on both sides of the discussion: https://www.futurity.org/media-violence-aggression-1402632-2/ The American Psychological Association’s Policy Statement regarding media violence: http://www.apa.org/about/policy/violent-video-games.aspx Criticism of Social Cognitive Theory One of the main criticisms of the social cognitive theory is that it is not a unified theory, meaning that the different aspects of the theory may not be connected. The theory is so broad that not all of its component parts are fully understood and integrated into a single explanation of learning. The findings associated with this theory are still, for the most part, preliminary. The theory is limited in that not all social learning can be directly observed. Because of this, it can be difficult to measure the effect that social cognition has on development. Finally, this theory tends to ignore maturation throughout the lifespan. Because of this, the understanding of how a child learns through observation and how an adult learns through observation are not differentiated, and factors of development are not included. Educational Implications of Social Cognitive Theory People can consciously change and develop their cognitive functioning. This is important to the proposition that how we view ourselves can also be changed or enhanced. From this perspective, people are capable of influencing their own motivation and performance. Improving performance, therefore, depends on changing some of these influences. In teaching and learning, the challenge upfront is to Get the learner to believe in his or her personal capabilities to successfully perform a designated task Provide environmental conditions, such as instructional strategies and appropriate technology, that improve the strategies and self-efficacy of the learner Provide opportunities for the learner to experience successful learning as a result of appropriate action Social Cognitive Theory | 33  Social Cognitive Theory has numerous implications in classroom teaching and learning practices Students learn a great deal simply by observing others. Describing the consequences of behavior increases appropriate behaviors, and decreases inappropriate ones Modeling provides an alternative to teaching new behaviors. Teachers must model only appropriate behaviors and not model inappropriate behaviors. Teachers should expose students to a variety of models, including peers and other adult models. Students must believe that they are capable of accomplishing a task; it is important for students to develop a sense of self-efficacy. Teachers should help students set realistic expectations, while ensuring that expectations are realistically challenging. Media Attributions Social Cognitive Theory © Simplypsychology is licensed under a All Rights Reserved license 34 | Social Cognitive Theory Cognitive Theory Jean Piaget (1896-1980), a Swiss psychologist, is best known for his pioneering work on the development of intelligence in children. His studies have had a major impact on the fields of psychology and education. Piaget was the first to conduct systematic observations of children in order to study cognition. Piaget was primarily interested in the nature of knowledge and how it could be seen as a form of adaptation to the environment. He described his work as genetic epistemology – the study of the origins and development of knowledge. Piaget based many of his ideas on observations of his own children–Jacqueline, Lucienne, and Laurent. From his observations of children, Piaget concluded that children were actively constructing their own knowledge; they were not limited to receiving knowledge from caregivers or teachers. In studying the cognitive development of children and adolescents, Piaget identified four major stages: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational. In each stage, children demonstrate new intellectual abilities and increasingly complex understanding of the world. According to Piaget, these stages cannot be skipped—cognitive development always follows this precise sequence. The ages at which children progress through the stages are approximations, varying with the environment and background of individual children. Further, at any given time, a child may exhibit behaviors characteristic of more than one stage. Piaget’s work provides the foundation on which constructivist theories are based. Constructivists believe that knowledge is individually constructed and that each person constructs their own understanding of concepts, which may vary from person to person (Berk, 2017; Crain, 2011; Santrock, 2013. Sensorimotor Development In the Sensorimotor Stage, occurring from birth to age 2, the child is concerned with gaining motor control and learning about physical objects. Piaget proposed that an infant’s intelligence is essentially practical in that all interactions with its environment are either sensory (i.e., seeing, hearing, etc.) or motor (i.e., grasping, pulling, etc.). Thus, the first stage of development is known as the sensorimotor stage. Knowledge is limited in this stage because it is based on physical interactions and experiences. Infants cannot predict reactions, and, therefore, must constantly experiment and learn through trial and error. Such exploration might include shaking a rattle or putting objects in the mouth. As they become more mobile, infants’ ability to develop cognitively increases, and early language development begins during this stage. Piaget’s Observations of Infant Jacqueline Jacqueline tries to grasp a celluloid duck on top of her quilt. She almost catches it, shakes herself, and the duck slides down beside her. It falls very close to her hand but behind a fold in the sheet. Jacqueline’s eyes have followed the movement, and she has even followed it with her outstretched hand. But as soon as the duck has disappeared—nothing more! It does not occur to her to search behind the fold of the sheet, which would be very easy to do (she twists it mechanically without Cognitive Theory | 35  searching at all). But, curiously, she again begins to stir about as she did when trying to get the duck and again glances at the top of the quilt. I then take the duck from its hiding place and place it near her hand three times. All three times she tries to grasp it, but when she is about to touch it, I replace it very obviously under the sheet. Jacqueline immediately withdraws her hand and gives up. The second and third times, I make her grasp the duck through the sheet, and she shakes it for a brief moment, but it does not occur to her to raise the cloth. Then I recommence the initial experiment. The duck is on the quilt. In trying to get it, she again causes it to slide behind the fold in the sheet; after having looked at this fold for a moment (it is near her hand), she turns over and sucks her thumb. (Source: Piaget, 1955, pp. 36–7) From such observations, Piaget concluded that infants lack an understanding of object permanence—the concept that objects continue to exist when they are out of sight. The fact that something as fundamental as object permanence does not appear to be innate illustrates how deeply and how early the child begins to build an understanding of the world, at least according to Piaget’s theory. Preoperational Development In the Preoperational Stage, from ages 2 to 7, the child is preoccupied with verbal skills. At this point, the child can name objects and reason intuitively. In this stage, children can use symbols to represent words, images, and ideas, demonstrated by children in this stage by engaging in pretend play. A child’s arms might become airplane wings as he zooms around the room, or a child with a stick might become a brave knight with a sword. Children also begin to use language in the preoperational stage, but they cannot understand adult logic or mentally manipulate information (the term operational refers to logical manipulation of information, so children at this stage are pre-operational). Children’s logic is based on their own personal knowledge of the world so far, rather than on conventional knowledge. More complex concepts, such as cause and effect relationships, have not been learned. During this stage, we also expect children to display egocentrism, which means that the child is not able to take the perspective of others. A child at this stage thinks that everyone sees, thinks, and feels just as they do. Concrete Operational Development In the Concrete Operational Stage, from ages 7 to 11, the child begins to deal with abstract concepts such as numbers and relationships. In this stage, children can think logically about real (concrete) events; they have a firm grasp on the use of numbers and start to employ memory strategies. They can perform mathematical operations and understand transformations, such as addition is the opposite of subtraction, and multiplication is the opposite of division. Thinking at this stage becomes less egocentric, and children come to understand the 36 | Cognitive Theory concept of conservation—even if something changes shape, its mass, volume, and number stay the same. For example, if you pour water from a tall, thin glass into a short, fat glass, you still have the same amount of water. Formal Operational Development The period from adolescence through adulthood is the Formal Operational Stage. During this stage, adolescents and adults begin to reason logically and systematically. Adolescents and adults in this stage are able to use symbols related to abstract concepts. Adolescents can think about multiple variables in systematic ways, can formulate hypotheses, and think about abstract relationships and concepts. Piaget believed that intellectual development was a lifelong process, but that when formal operational thought was attained, no new structures were needed. Intellectual development in adults involves developing more complex thoughts through the addition of knowledge (Berk, 2017; Crain, 2011; Santrock, 2013). “Play is the work of childhood.” – Jean Piaget Criticisms of Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory As with other major contributors to theories of development, several of Piaget’s ideas have come under criticism based on the results of further research. For example, several contemporary studies support a model of development that is more continuous than Piaget’s discrete stages (Courage & Howe, 2002). Many others suggest that children reach cognitive milestones earlier than Piaget describes. Piaget’s theory also predicts that thinking within a particular stage would be similar across tasks. In other words, preschool children should perform at the preoperational level in all cognitive tasks. Research has shown diversity in children’s thinking across cognitive tasks. Researchers now believe that children may be more competent than Piaget originally thought, especially in their practical knowledge. Lastly, according to Piaget, the highest level of cognitive development is formal operational thought, which develops between 11 and 20 years old. However, many developmental psychologists disagree with Piaget, suggesting a fifth stage of cognitive development, known as the postformal stage (Commons & Bresette, 2006). In postformal thinking, decisions are made based on situations and circumstances, and logic is integrated with emotion as adults develop principles that depend on contexts. One way that we can see the difference between an adult in postformal thought and an adolescent in formal operations is in terms of how they handle emotionally- charged issues. Educational Implications An important implication of Piaget’s theory is the adaptation of instruction to the learner’s developmental level. The content of instruction needs to be consistent with the developmental level of the learner. The teacher’s role is to facilitate learning by providing a variety of experiences. Opportunities that allow students of differing cognitive levels to work together often encourage less mature students to advance to a more mature understanding. Perhaps the most significant implication for instruction is the use of concrete “hands- on” experiences to help children learn. Cognitive Theory | 37  Additional Piagetian suggestions include Continue to provide concrete props and visual aids Use familiar examples to facilitate learning more complex ideas Allow opportunities to classify and group information with increasing complexity Present problems that require logical analytic thinking, such as “brain teasers” Provide opportunities to discuss social, political, and cultural issues Teach broad concepts rather than facts Ground concepts in a context that’s meaningful and relevant to the learner Media Attributions Children playing with water © Pixabay is licensed under a CC BY (Attribution) license 38 | Cognitive Theory Sociocultural Theory Sociocultural Theory has a unique history. Russian-born Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky (1896-1934) was one of the most notable theorists of his time. A remarkable and brilliant researcher and theoretician who died young, Vygotsky has been called the “Mozart of psychology” (Toulmin, 1978). In his very short life (He died at the age of 37 from tuberculosis), he received a law degree and studied literature, linguistics, sociology, psychology, philosophy, and the arts. He is best known for his contribution to the understanding of the relationship between the social world and cognitive development—specifically, his work focused on the significance of culture and the role of language. Vygotsky’s fundamental insight was that children need social interaction with adults and older children to Vygotsky believed that language is advance their psychological development. However, his what makes thought possible and is, work was rejected in the Soviet Union under Joseph thus, the basis of consciousness. Stalin’s leadership and was not released in the West until decades after his death. In the latter part of the twentieth century, his theories became widely respected and influential within the fields of developmental psychology, education, and child development, advancing human understanding of how best to support the growth and development of children to reach their fullest potential as mature human beings. According to Vygotsky, children learn by internalizing the results of interactions with adults. The first important concept he developed is the zone of proximal development (ZPD), referring to the difference between a child’s existing abilities and what he or she can learn under the guidance of an adult or a more capable peer. In other words, it’s the gap between what children are already able to do and what they are not quite ready to accomplish by themselves. Vygotsky suggested that interactive learning with adults is most effective in helping children cross this zone. According to Vygotsky, adults and more advanced peers must help direct and organize a child’s learning before the child can master and internalize it. This idea of a significant adult guiding a child through the ZPD is known as scaffolding, or structuring learning encounters in order to support and foster a child’s emerging capabilities. Scaffolding can be provided in a few ways: in the form of a mentor, by the use of objects or experiences, or by a child’s past learning. Vygotsky described human cognitive development as a “collaborative process,” which means that the learning process of individuals takes place through social interactions. Children acquire cognitive skills as part of their orientation into a way of life. Shared activities help them internalize their society’s modes of thinking and behaving. Moreover, social interaction not only helps children remember. It may also even be the key to memory formation. In addition to these ideas, Vygotsky also forwarded the notion that culture and community play decisive roles in early development (Berk, 2017; Crain, 2011; Santrock, 2013). Criticisms of Sociocultural Theory One criticism is Vygotsky’s view of active construction of knowledge. Some critics suggest that learning is not always a result of active construction. Rather, learning can sometimes result passively. Another criticism is that Vygotsky’s theory of language is not well-developed. Vygotsky, unfortunately, died before he had a chance to fully develop his theories. His theories rely a lot on cultural influences, for it is culture that helps to develop learners’ language acquisition and cognitive development. Vygotsky believed that very little language acquisition and cognitive development result from biological factors. However, some psychologists dismiss the idea that cultural influences play a dominant role in the development of language. Sociocultural Theory | 39 This lends credence to Piaget’s view of cognitive development occurring in stages and children not being able to learn some concepts until they reach a certain level of maturation. Perhaps the main criticism of Vygotsky’s work concerns the assumption that it is relevant to all cultures. Some dismiss the idea that Vygotsky’s ideas are culturally universal and believe the concept of scaffolding, which is heavily dependent on verbal instruction, may not be equally useful in all cultures and for all types of learning. Indeed, in some instances, observation and practice may be more effective ways of learning certain skills. Educational Implications Although the social influences on cognitive development have been considered by other researchers, such as Piaget and Bandura, Vygotsky emphasized that individual development is inherently integrated with cultural, historical, and interpersonal factors, which is foundational to developmentally appropriate practice. Some general implications of Vygotsky’s ideas can be summarized as the central role of the teacher-student relationship in learning; the inherent cultural and social influences on students’ attitudes and beliefs the importance and power of language as a primary tool for the transference of knowledge and thought the benefits of a student-centered curriculum Think of scaffolding as providing training wheels for children. Training wheels provide just enough assistance to let the child be successful, until he/she is able to ride independently. Media Attributions Vygotsky’s development © Deirdre Budzyna via. ROTEL is licensed under a CC BY-SA (Attribution ShareAlike) license 40 | Sociocultural Theory Humanistic Theory Abraham Harold Maslow (1908-1970) has made a major contribution to teaching and classroom management in schools. Humanistic theory is an approach to development that examines the “whole person”—taking into consideration all aspects of human existence—and the uniqueness of all individuals. Maslow believed that people are motivated to meet certain basic needs and that some needs take precedence over others. Our most basic need is for physical survival, and this will be the first thing that motivates our behavior. Once that level is fulfilled, the next level up is what motivates us, and so on. His theory is also called the Theory of Hierarchical Needs and is often depicted as a pyramid with five distinct levels. Needs lower down in the hierarchy must be satisfied before individuals can attend to needs higher up. From the bottom of the hierarchy upwards, the needs are physiological, safety, love and belonging, esteem, and self-actualization. Maslow believed that while every person is capable and has the desire to move up the hierarchy toward a level of self-actualization, unfortunately, progress is often disrupted by a failure to meet lower-level needs. Life experiences, including divorce and the loss of a job, may cause an individual to fluctuate between levels of the hierarchy. Therefore, not everyone will move through the hierarchy in a one-directional manner but may move back and forth between the different types of needs, depending on each person’s specific life circumstances. The first level of physiological needs is related to survival. These are biological requirements for human sustenance (for example, air, food, drink, shelter, clothing, warmth, sex, and sleep.) The human body cannot function normally if these needs are not satisfied. Maslow considered physiological needs the most important as all the other needs become secondary until these needs are met. Safety needs appear when physiological needs are fulfilled. These include the need for structure and predictability, protection from elements, security—physical and emotional, law and order, stability, and freedom from fear. Reducing uncertainty is the chief objective at this stage. Individuals are free from danger, fear, and chaos when their safety needs are adequately met. After physiological and safety needs have been fulfilled, the third level of human needs is social and involves feelings of belongingness. The need for interpersonal relationships motivates behavior. Humanistic Theory | 41  Examples include friendship, intimacy, trust, acceptance, receiving and giving affection and love, affiliation, or being part of a group (family, friends, work, etc.). In this stage, approval must come from earned respect, not fame or social status. Maslow classified the next level, esteem needs, into two categories: esteem for oneself (for example, dignity, achievement, mastery, and independence) and the desire for reputation or respect from others (for example, status, and prestige). Maslow indicated that the need for respect or reputation is most important for children and adolescents and precedes real self-esteem or dignity. If the previous needs are sufficiently met, a person now has the opportunity to reach self- actualization—realizing personal potential, self-fulfillment, seeking personal growth and peak experiences– the ability “to become everything one is capable of becoming” (Maslow, 1987, p. 64). Maslow believed this to be an exceptional feat since it so rarely occurs. A person who reaches this stage strives for growth and self- improvement—like Gandhi or Oprah. It is important to note that Maslow himself continued to refine his theory over several decades (Maslow, 1987), and proposed that the order in the hierarchy “is not nearly as rigid” (p. 68) as he may have implied in his earlier description. Maslow also noted that the order of needs might be flexible based on external circumstances or individual differences. For example, he notes that for some individuals, the need for self-esteem is more important than the need for love. For others, the need for creative fulfillment may supersede even the most basic needs. Maslow (1987) also pointed out that most behavior is multi-motivated and noted that “any behavior tends to be determined by several or all of the basic needs simultaneously rather than by only one of them” (p. 71). His revised model includes levels of: Cognitive needs: knowledge and understanding, curiosity, exploration, need for meaning and predictability. Aesthetic needs: appreciation and search for beauty, balance, form, etc. Transcendence needs: A person is motivated by values which transcend the personal self (e.g., service to others, mystical experiences, religious faith, etc.)—like the Dalai Lama or the Pope (Berk, 2017; Crain, 2011; Santrock, 2013). 42 | Humanistic Theory Educational Implications Applications of Maslow’s hierarchical needs theory to the work of the classroom teacher are obvious. Before a student’s cognitive needs can be met, they must first fulfill their basic physiological needs. For example, a tired and hungry student will find it difficult to focus on learning. Students need to feel emotionally and physically safe and accepted within the classroom to progress and reach their full potential. He suggests students must be shown that they are valued and respected in the classroom and the teacher should create a supportive environment. Students with low self-esteem will not progress academically at an optimal rate until their self- esteem is strengthened. Criticisms of Humanistic Theory The most significant limitation of Maslow’s theory concerns his methodology. He looked at the biographies and writings of 18 people he identified as being self-actualized. From these sources, he developed a list of qualities that seemed characteristic of this specific group of people, as opposed to humanity in general. From a scientific perspective, there are numerous problems with this particular approach. First, it could be argued that this type of analysis is extremely subjective, as it is based entirely on the opinion of the researcher. Therefore, Maslow’s operational definition of self-actualization must not be blindly accepted as scientific fact. Additionally, Maslow’s analysis focused on a biased sample of self-actualized individuals, limited to highly educated white males (such as Thomas Jefferson, Abraham Lincoln, Albert Einstein, William James, Aldous Huxley, Beethoven). Although Maslow (1970) studied self-actualized females, such as Eleanor Roosevelt and Mother Teresa, they Humanistic Theory | 43 comprised a small proportion of his sample; this makes it difficult to generalize his theory to females and individuals from lower social classes or different ethnicities. Media Attributions Humanistic Theory © Deirdre Budzyna via. ROTEL is licensed under a CC BY-SA (Attribution ShareAlike) license Revised Humanistic Theory © Deirdre Budzyna via. ROTEL is licensed under a CC BY-SA (Attribution ShareAlike) license 44 | Humanistic Theory Ecological Theory Also known as the Human Ecology Theory, Ecological Theory states that human development is influenced by the different types of environmental systems. Formulated by famous psychologist Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917-2005), this theory helps us understand why we may behave differently when we compare our behavior in the presence of our family and our behavior when we are in school or at work. The ecological systems theory holds that we encounter different environments throughout our lifespan that may influence our behavior in varying degrees. These systems include the microsystem, the mesosystem, the exosystem, the macrosystem, and the chronosystem, and are usually depicted by nesting spheres of influence. The microsystem is the setting in which we have direct social interactions with people and social agents. Family, friends, classmates, teachers, neighbors and other people with whom we have direct contact are included in the microsystem. The theory states that we are not simply recipients of experiences, rather we