Philosophy Past Paper PDF - First Quarter

PHILOSOPHY FIRST QTR STEM | MONTE | SY 2024-2025 PHILOSOPHY d. Diogenes of Sinope ❖ Philos and Sophia “Love for Wisdom”...

PHILOSOPHY FIRST QTR STEM | MONTE | SY 2024-2025 PHILOSOPHY d. Diogenes of Sinope ❖ Philos and Sophia “Love for Wisdom” ❖ “If you find no pleasure in life, try to ❖ initiation to activity and process of find a meaning at least” philosophical reflection as search for synoptic e. Socrates vision of life ❖ “The only true wisdom is knowing you ❖ Engaging in philosophy means engaging in know nothing” contemplation. f. Plato Suspending who you are, what you ❖ “No one is more hated than he who believe, and what you value speaks the truth” ❖ Science or discipline which uses human g. Aristotle reason to investigate the ultimate causes, ❖ “Happiness is the meaning & purpose reasons, and principles which govern all of life, the whole aim and end of things. human existence” Random note: WESTERN PHILOSOPHY Socrates student si Plato, si Plato student si ❖ uncovering the truth through systematic Aristotle, Aristotle student si Alexander the great argumentation and theory. ❖ greater emphasis on the use of reason rather Schools of Thought than faith, and an increased focus on man as 1. Stoicism (Zeno of Citium, Marcus Aurelius) an individual ❖ development of self-control and fortitude as a means of overcoming The Thinkers destructive emotions ❖ becoming a clear and unbiased 1. Sophists thinker allows one to understand the ❖ teachers who traveled throughout universal reason Greece and thought people who ❖ path to happiness for humans is found wished to learn in accepting that which we have been ❖ excellent public speakers who trained given in life their students to win each and every ❖ Freedom from "passion" by following argument they participated in. "reason 2. Philosophos ❖ Teaching is more than just training 2. Scholasticism (St. Ambrose, St. Augustine, St. people to win arguments. Aquinas, St. Anselm of Canterbury) ❖ Teaching and learning should be an ❖ philosophical systems and speculative opportunity to learn the truth of all tendencies of various medieval things in this world, and real wisdom Christian thinkers working against a should strive to achieve truth aside background of fixed religious dogma from knowledge. ❖ places a strong emphasis on dialectical reasoning to extend knowledge by inference and to resolve Notable Thinkers contradictions. a. Pythagoras ❖ rigorous conceptual analysis and the ❖ “Silence is better than unmeaning careful drawing of distinctions. words” ❖ started by people like Saint Ambrose b. Heraclitus and St. Augustine. ❖ “There’s nothing permanent except ❖ “The truth is like a lion. You don’t have change” to defend it. Let it loose. It will defend c. Democritus itself” -St Ambrose ❖ “By desiring little, a poor man makes ❖ “He who is not angry when there is a himself rich” just cause for anger is immoral. Why? Because anger looks to the good of FIRST SEM ASPASIA 1 of 15  PHILOSOPHY FIRST QTR STEM | MONTE | SY 2024-2025 justice. And if you can live amid (including life itself) has any injustice without anger, you are valuable meaning immoral as well as unjust” -Thomas 6. Empiricism Aquinas ❖ All learning comes only from ❖ “For I do not seek to understand in experience and observations. order to understand in order that I ❖ Greek word for experience: empeiria. may believe, but I believe in order to ❖ The best way to gain knowledge is to understand. For this I also believe, that see, hear, touch, or otherwise sense unless I believe I shall not understand” things directly. -St Anselm of Canterbury ❖ emphasizes evidence, especially as 3. Humanism (John Lennon) discovered in experiments. ❖ if we stripped away all the structures ❖ At birth we are a blank slate, or tabula of religion and politics, we’d be left rasa in Latin with raw human existence, and the ❖ Experience includes both sensation world would be peaceful! and reflection. ❖ emphasizes reason and science over ❖ Empiricism V Rationalism V scripture (religious texts) and tradition Constructivism ❖ human beings are flawed but capable ❖ Rationalism of improvement knowledge is based primarily ❖ seeing the "whole" person and on logic and intuition, or appreciating the uniqueness of every innate ideas that we can individual understand through ❖ humans are inherently good, have free contemplation, not will, have the ability and desire to self observation actualize, and that the subjective ❖ Constructivism reality of each individual is valuable combined philosophy 4. Existentialism knowledge is based, first and ❖ we are each responsible for creating foremost, on observing the purpose or meaning in our own lives world around us ❖ actual life of the individuals is what But we can’t understand what constitutes what could be called their we see unless we fit it into "true essence" some broader rational ❖ Jean-Paul Sartre structure, so reason also plays “Man’s existence precedes his an essential role. true essence” “Although all our knowledge ❖ “existence precedes essence”, which begins with experience, it does means that the most important not follow that it arises from consideration for individuals is that experience.” (Immanuel Kant) they are individuals—independently acting and responsible, conscious 7. Pragmatism (Charles Sander Peirce) beings ❖ an ideology or proposition is true if it 5. Cynicism V Pessimism V Nihilism works satisfactorily, that the meaning a. Cynicism of a proposition is to be found in the - distrust by prudence; while practical consequences of accepting it, due to a sense of defeatism, and that unpractical ideas are to be b. Pessimism rejected - distrust of potential success ❖ thinking of or dealing with problems c. Nihilism in a practical way, rather than by using - general distrust cast upon the theory or abstract principles. belief that anything in life ❖ for any statement to be meaningful, it must have practical bearings FIRST SEM ASPASIA 2 of 15  PHILOSOPHY FIRST QTR STEM | MONTE | SY 2024-2025 8. Positivism ❖ the view that truth comes entirely from science or math ❖ argued that words had an objective meaning or “reference,” and that these references were real things which could be studied scientifically. 9. Phenomenology ❖ philosophy of experience ❖ ultimate source of all meaning and value is the lived experience of human beings ❖ study of “phenomena” ❖ Phenomenology V Empiricism Phenomenologist is concerned about “experience” itself while the Empiricist is concerned about what is “in experience.” Phenomenologist is focused on “the experience which makes things possible,” the Empiricist is focused on “the things in our experience.” 10. Absurdism (Albert Camus) ❖ “The Absurd” refers to the conflict between the human tendency to seek inherent value and meaning in life and the human inability to find any ❖ Absurd does not mean "logically impossible", but rather "humanly impossible“. ❖ “The struggle itself toward the heights is enough to fill a man’s heart, one must imagine Sisyphus happy”- Albert Camus ❖ “You can’t wait until life isn’t hard anymore before you decide to be happy”-Jane Marczewski FIRST SEM ASPASIA 3 of 15  PHILOSOPHY FIRST QTR STEM | MONTE | SY 2024-2025 Eastern Philosophy ❖ Branched out to different churches ❖ closely tied with religious belief (Protestant, Orthodox, Roman Catholic) ❖ described as “wisdom” literature ❖ stories, sayings and texts encourage people to adopt an ethical and harmonious way of life ❖ great emphasis on social relations ❖ family and community are considered a central aspect of life ❖ goal of philosophy is to achieve a balanced life and one’s role in society Religion ❖ A cultural system of commonly shared beliefs and rituals that provides a sense of ultimate meaning and purpose by creating a reality that is shared, all-encompassing and supernatural (Giddens) ❖ a set of beliefs or principles that helps us interpret our everyday reality, understand, organize, and make sense of the world ❖ belief system is a network of beliefs that we each hold about what is, or should be, right and wrong and what is, or should be, true and false Christianity ❖ Monotheistic ❖ Cross: symbolizes Christianity as a religion as the crucifixion of Jesus Christ. ❖ Crucifix: which will include a figure of Jesus, nailed to the cross through both hands and feet, usually with a crown of thorns on his head and a placard with the letters INRI ❖ Ichthys – to spread the “Good news” ❖ Jesus is the Messiah ❖ Biggest religion ❖ “YHWH” is the name of God ❖ Place of Worship - The Church ❖ Sacred text - The Bible ❖ Abraham - Father of all nations Islam ❖ Priest - one who leads christians ❖ Monotheistic ❖ Latin acronym for the phrase, "Jesus the ❖ only one and incomparable God (Allah) Nazarene, King of the Jews.“ ❖ That Muhammad is the last messenger of God. ❖ Matthew 4:19, Jesus says, "Come, follow me, ❖ Imam – one who leads Islam and I will make you fishers of men." The ❖ There appeared on the feet of Ishmael (son of ichthys symbolizes the Christian's mission to Abraham with Hagar) a well, which then spread the "good news. became the place of Mecca ❖ Kaaba (Cube) in Mecca – Most Sacred Place FIRST SEM ASPASIA 4 of 15  PHILOSOPHY FIRST QTR STEM | MONTE | SY 2024-2025 ❖ Teachings and normative examples in Quran are called sunnah, composed of accounts called hadith Hinduism ❖ Jesus as a prophet ❖ Polytheistic ❖ Second biggest religion ❖ Oldest religion ❖ Islam is the complete and ❖ 3rd Biggest universal version of a primordial faith that ❖ AKA “Sanatana Dharma” or Eternal was revealed many times before through Tradition prophets including Adam, Abraham, ❖ Beliefs Moses, and Jesus Dharma - Talks about ethics/duty and ❖ Quran: Muslims consider it to be this is the foremost goal and is the the unaltered and final revelation of God truth (Satya) ❖ 5 Pillars of Islam: Sanatana Dharma - (eternal tradition) a. Shahada - Testament of Faith Samsara - Continuous cycle of birth, b. Salat - Daily prayers (5 times) life, death, and rebirth c. Zakat - Give to the poor Moksha - realization of one's union d. Sawm - Fasting during Ramadan with God and perfect unselfishness e. Hajj - Pilgrimage to the holy city and knowledge of the Self; (Mecca) Nirvana - realization of one's eternal relationship with God and as the Judaism attainment of perfect mental peace; ❖ Monotheistic Samadhi – realization of the unity of all ❖ ethical monotheism: the belief existence and as detachment from that God is one and is concerned with worldly desires the actions of mankind Yogas – Paths or practices ❖ According to the Tanakh Karma – Action, intent, and (Hebrew Bible), God promised Abraham consequences to make his offspring a great nation. ❖ Main gods: ❖ the nation of Israel to love and Vishnu - god of preservation worship only one God; that is, the Jewish Shiva - god of destruction nation is to reciprocate God's concern for Brahma - god of creation the world. ❖ 3 Poison: Delusion, Greed, Hate ❖ two interlocking triangles ❖ Such realization liberates one from samsara, represent the two tribes of Judah and thereby ending the cycle of rebirth, sorrow Benjamin. and suffering. ❖ nine-branched candelabrum, used in the ❖ Due to belief in the indestructibility of the soul, celebration of Hanukkah death is deemed insignificant with respect to ❖ menorah made its first appearance in the the cosmic self book of Exodus when God revealed its design ❖ Sacred text: Veda to Moses ❖ Place of worship: Mandir or Temple ❖ Jews are to imitate God's love for people. ❖ Practitioners - Scholars ❖ Mother of Islam and Christianity ❖ They wear Yarmulke, Kippah, or Koppel ❖ that symbolizes someone is above them Buddhism ❖ Jesus is an ordinary person (lesser) (politics) ❖ Siddhartha Gautama – Founder (roman empire) (perpetuator) ❖ Buddha – The awakened one ❖ “YHWH” is the name of God ❖ Place of Worship- Temples of ❖ Rabbi – Priest Monastery ❖ Place of Worship: Synagogue ❖ Sacred Text - Tripitaka ❖ Religious Text: Tanakh ❖ During Siddhartha’s wondering ❖ Until now, the messiah has not yet arrived he saw a sick person, an old person, a corpse, and a religious leader FIRST SEM ASPASIA 5 of 15  PHILOSOPHY FIRST QTR STEM | MONTE | SY 2024-2025 ❖ Buddha is not their God but their teacher Sikhism ❖ Siddhārtha Gautama was moved by the innate ❖ Monotheistic suffering of humanity and its endless ❖ Youngest religion repetition due to rebirth ❖ God has many names one of which is ❖ Siddhartha was supposed to be the heir, and “Waheguru” he was sheltered for 29 yrs ❖ Simran: meditation of The Words of Guru ❖ After coming out he met 4 types of people Granth Sahib (Dead person, sick person, Aged Person, ❖ 2nd Guru Nanak states 5 Thieves: lust, anger, Religious Ascetic (hermit)) greed, attachment, and pride ❖ Four Noble Truths ❖ The Khanda is the symbol of The Noble Truth of suffering - Sikhism which made up of three “dukkha” important symbols; the double-edged All these words point to the sword, a circle (the Chakkar), and two fact that no conditioned crossed kirpans (curved swords) phenomenon can provide true ❖ a double-edged sword (lasting) happiness in our lives represents the belief of a single God. The Noble Truth of the cause of The Chakkar represents that God has no suffering “Samudaya” beginning or end. The two kirpans represent Through a lack of God's spiritual authority and political power. understanding of how things The entire symbol is meant to represent God truly exist, we create and as a whole recreate an independent self ❖ Can be expressed musically through kirtan or entity called “me. internally through Nam Japo (repeat God's Cravings arise for sense name) as a means to feel God's presence experiences, for “being” or ❖ Sikhism is based on the spiritual teachings of “becoming” Guru Nanak, the first Guru, and the ten The Noble Truth of cessation of successive Sikh gurus. suffering - “Nirodha” ❖ Sikh, meaning a "disciple", or a "learner" The mind can be purified of all ❖ Originated in the Punjab Region of India the mental defilements that ❖ Guru Nanak taught that living an "active, cause suffering. creative, and practical life" of "truthfulness, Nirvana, the ultimate peace, fidelity, self-control and purity" is above the has been compared to the metaphysical truth, extinction of a three-fold fire of ❖ Practitioners - Sikh – A disciple/follower lust, ill-will, and delusion ❖ Guru - religious leader The Noble Truth of the way to ❖ Guru Nanak - most important Guru cessation “Marga” ❖ Place of Worship: The Words of Guru Granth The Way leading to cessation Sahib contains a thorough and ❖ Fundamental Beliefs are: profound training of body, Faith and meditation on the name of speech, and mind the one creator ❖ Noble Eightfold Path Unity of all humankind Right View/ Understanding Engaging in selfless service Right Intention Striving for social justice for the Right Speech benefit and prosperity of all Right Action Honest conduct and livelihood while Right Livelihood living a householder's life. Right Effort Right Mindfulness Right Concentration FIRST SEM ASPASIA 6 of 15  PHILOSOPHY FIRST QTR STEM | MONTE | SY 2024-2025 Taoism ❖ A physical Torii Gate usually marks the ❖ Non-theistic entrance to a sacred Shinto shrine. ❖ Practitioner - Lao Tzu ❖ Harae - purification rites (philosopher) ❖ Place of Worship- Temple Jainism ❖ Religious Text: Tao Te Ching ❖ Transtheistic (neither theistic ❖ Emphasize wu wei (effortless nor atheistic, but is beyond them.) action) ❖ The hand with a wheel on the ❖ Gets name from Dao “the way,” which is the palm symbolizes Ahimsa in Jainism. reality beyond human perception, a reality ❖ "ahimsa". The wheel represents that Taoists strongly associate with the natural the dharmachakra, which stands for the world resolve to halt the saṃsāra ❖ humans and animals should live in balance (transmigration) through relentless with the Tao, or the universe pursuit of truth and non-violence. ❖ Taoists believe in spiritual immortality, where ❖ The principle of ahimsa the spirit of the body joins the universe after (non-violence or non-injury) is a fundamental death tenet of Jainism ❖ Taoism does not have a God in the way that ❖ Practitioners the Abrahamic religions do Tirthankaras – Teacher ❖ For Taoists, the ultimate goal of human life is Mahavira – Founder to understand this reality and learn to live in ❖ Place of Worship: Basadi harmony with it ❖ Religious Text: Agams / Agam Sutras ❖ Taoist ethics in general tend to emphasize wu ❖ AKA Jain Dharma wei (effortless action), "naturalness", simplicity, ❖ Jains – Sanskrit word Jina or Victor spontaneity, and the Three Treasures: ❖ Ahisma – Wheel on palm meaning that Compassion ❖ there should be no violence in any form Frugality ❖ Dharmachakra – Halt the samsara Humility ❖ 1st Thirthankaras Rishabhanatha and ❖ each half contains part of the other! The black twenty-fourth being the Mahavira around 500 side has some white in it, and the white side BCE. has some black. ❖ In Jain theology, it does not matter how correct or defensible the violence may be, one must not kill any being, and "non-violence is Shintoism one's highest religious duty ❖ Polytheistic (many gods) ❖ 5 vows: ❖ does not have a founder, nor does Ahimsa – non violence it have sacred scriptures like the sutras or Sotya – Truth (always speak the truth) the Bible Asteya – Not stealing (ask permission ❖ Shinto is deeply rooted in the to take if something’s given) Japanese people and traditions. "Shinto Bramacharya – No sexual activity gods" are called kami. (celibacy) for monks and nuns, for ❖ Amaterasu is the most venerated laypersons, it means chastity, and deity in the Shinto cult, faithfulness to one’s partner ❖ The Japanese flag symbolizing the sun in a red Aparigraha – non-possessiveness circle, is a direct reference to her (non-attachment to material and ❖ also called kami-no-michi psychological possessions) ❖ Shinto means "way of the god” ❖ 3 Jewels: ❖ The symbol of the Torii Gate represents the Samyak Darshana – Right Faith transition between our world and the world of Samyak Jnana – Right Knowledge the gods Samyak Charitra – Right Conduct FIRST SEM ASPASIA 7 of 15  PHILOSOPHY FIRST QTR STEM | MONTE | SY 2024-2025 Confucianism ❖ Non-theistic (no god) ❖ Practitioner - Confucius ❖ No set place of worship ❖ Religious Text: Analects ❖ Confucius taught that all human life takes place within a system of relationships ❖ Li or Duty subjects have the duty to loyally obey their leader, whereas leaders have the duty to protect their subjects and not abuse their trust. ❖ Filial Piety honoring one’s parents and worshiping one’s ancestors. ❖ Social order through hierarchy Fathers are placed above their sons, husbands above their wives, etc ❖ The Golden Rule “Do not do unto others what you would not want others do unto you.” if you are a king, you should be the sort of king you would want to have if you were a commoner; if you are a husband, you should be the kind of husband you would want to have if you were in your wife’s position. ❖ 5 Bonds Ruler and Subject Parent and Child Husband and Wife Elder Sibling and Younger Sibling Elder Friend and Younger Friend FIRST SEM ASPASIA 8 of 15  PHILOSOPHY FIRST QTR STEM | MONTE | SY 2024-2025 The Blind men and the Elephant Holistic Partial ❖ The point of the story is that while each blind man is proclaiming what they believe to be an ❖ Looks at all ❖ looks at only a absolute truth, in fact all of their truths are just aspects of a limited number relative based on their experience of the given of aspects of the elephant. No one has the Truth, in its entirety problem/situatio given ❖ Each of the blind men could be analogized to n problem/situatio somebody who dogmatically believes in a ❖ All aspects are n given ❖ Conclusions are single perspective importance made based on ❖ The elephant represents reality, with all of its when making considering detail that can only be grasped by the person conclusions some, but not all, with the most open of mind, or in this case ❖ All aspects are sides of the open eyes tied in together problem/situatio to form a general n Holism overview of the ❖ E.g. A teacher ❖ Greek word "holos" which literally means all, problem/situatio scolds student n after student b entire, totality ❖ E.g. A teacher accused of ❖ Holistic perspective: listens first to stealing her a kind of system that aims to both stories of pencil case. determine and explain the whole or her two arguing However, the totality of a given system by examining students before teacher only the behaviors and activities of certain making any listened to the conclusion story of student component parts while in philosophy, about the issue b, and not to a point of view is defined as a way or a Student A before method how one sees or perceives the deciding to scold reality or a phenomenon the student. Holistic vs Partial POV ❖ Partial point of view: a perspective that looks at reality ❖ Remaining in the belief that you hold what is based on a single or partial certain and definite means closing yourself to component of a system other possibilities that may broaden your suggests that we only understand one perspectives. component part of the whole ❖ Because what you believe in are probably ❖ Holistic perspective: practical and based on experience, tries to broaden the understanding of philosophical inquiry will show you that it is reality by taking considerations of also valuable to contemplate on greater other possible causal agents or factors objects of inquiry free from personal or narrow be it biological, theological or any aims. other factors that may contribute to understanding a certain phenomenon. suggests that we can only understand WHY is there a need for us to philosophize the parts when we view them in relation to the whole Plato ❖ traced it with his sense of wonder. ❖ Whenever we are confronted with an experience, we always wonder how it came about. ❖ Man’s over-abounding curiosity drives him to ask questions. FIRST SEM ASPASIA 9 of 15  PHILOSOPHY FIRST QTR STEM | MONTE | SY 2024-2025 ❖ This perspective drives the need of a people base their own beliefs and philosopher to question, examine, and learn views. more 2. Philosophy as an examination of a particular area of knowledge Rene Descartes ❖ Philosophy goes hand-in-hand with ❖ Cogito ergo sum (I think, therefore I am) other disciplines in examining their ❖ traced it to doubt. fundamental purposes and evaluating ❖ basis of critical thinking and analysis in the changes they experience. sciences. ❖ There is a philosophy of science, which ❖ In science, there is a need to verify an seeks to understand the fundamental information or explanation before it is principles that guide scientific thought accepted as truth. ❖ There is a philosophy of religion which ❖ A critical and questioning perspective is examines the basic tenets of any faith. necessary in order to determine if indeed ❖ There is a philosophy of education, law, these ideas or views are correct or true. history – every aspect of knowledge benefit from the inquiring nature of Karl Jaspers Philosophy ❖ need to philosophize because of experience. 3. Philosophy as a discipline ❖ He believed that man is often confronted by ❖ Philosophy itself is a distinct area of experiences which challenges his ideas and knowledge with its own goals, frameworks. concerns, and ways of doing things ❖ A framework is defined as a way of thinking ❖ often divided into several branches about the world and is composed of the views which deal with a particular aspect of and beliefs of a person life or phenomena ❖ However complex and varied the Socrates perceptions are, they suggest two ❖ the need to philosophize is driven by the love important facts about philosophizing: for wisdom philosophy is a reflective and ❖ To love wisdom is to have an insatiable desire meditative activity, and it has for truth. no designated subject matter ❖ One seeks to continue to question, to probe, of its own and to discuss in order to get to the bottom of and a method of mental things. exercise on any type of ❖ Socrates exemplified this perspective and experience. gained fame for his curiosity and his constant debates with the intellectual elite in Greece. Branches of Philosophy a. Ethics - study on the morality of human action b. Epistemology - discusses the nature of knowledge and knowing c. Metaphysics - deals with the question of reality and existence Various viewpoints, thoughts, and approaches in d. Logic - study of correct reasoning Philosophy e. Politics - explores the relationship between citizens and governments 1. Philosophy as a way of analyzing frameworks f. Aesthetics - explores the nature of beauty, art, ❖ Internal questions are those dealing and taste with the creation and appreciation with our own correctness and values of beauty which can be addressed using our g. Etiology - examines events in the context of own personal frameworks cause-and-effect relationship ❖ External questions seek to question h. Teleology - deals with the question of purpose the very frameworks upon which i. Theology - examines spirituality FIRST SEM ASPASIA 10 of 15  PHILOSOPHY FIRST QTR STEM | MONTE | SY 2024-2025 “An Unexamined life is not worth living” he is malevolent. Is he - Socrates both able and willing? Then whence cometh METHODS OF PHILOSOPHIZING evil? 1. Systematic Doubt Is he neither able nor ❖ Methodic / Cartesian Doubt willing? ❖ every statement, claim, evidence, and Then why call him experience is scrutinized and analyzed God?" ❖ encourages individuals to reevaluate 3. Dialectic their beliefs and appreciate the ❖ involves examining and reconciling relativity of knowledge opposing or contradictory ideas or ❖ enhances critical thinking and helps perspectives people develop a more in-depth ❖ Goal: try to resolve the disagreement understanding of the subjects they through rational talk, and the search learn for the truth in the matter ❖ E.g. ❖ thesis is an intellectual proposition I am alive "Do I have a pulse?" ❖ antithesis is simply the negation of "Can you feel your heartbeat?" the thesis, a reaction to the I have a body "Do you have proposition arms, legs and feet?‘’ "Can you ❖ synthesis solves the conflict between walk or run?" the thesis and antithesis by 2. Philosophical Argument reconciling their common truths and ❖ Philosophers engage in discussion and forming a new proposition debate on their ideas 4. Socratic Method ❖ Various perspectives on a topic are ❖ dialogue between teacher and taken into consideration and students, examined ❖ continual probing questions of the ❖ Argument teacher Not a disagreement, dispute, ❖ method of analyzing a topic by quarrel, an opinion formulating a series of questions Composed of one or more designed to analyze its various aspects statement set out in support and examine and clarify a person’s of some other statement view on it E.g.: "I think, therefore I am." 5. Axioms Essentially, this ❖ A statement that is so evident or argument states that well-established, that it is accepted while I may not be without controversy or question. certain of the reality of ❖ A premise or starting point for anything else, by the reasoning very act of doubting, I ❖ A statement or proposition which is can be certain that I regarded as being established, exist accepted, or self-evidently true E.g. : Epicurus's Argument ❖ A statement that everyone believes is from Evil true. "Is God willing to ❖ E.g.: Murphy’s Law, a+b = b+a, the prevent evil, but not whole is greater than the part able? 6. Occam’s Razor Then he is not ❖ problem-solving device used in omnipotent. Is he able, analyzing possible explanation but not willing? Then regarding a phenomenon ❖ the one which has the least assumption is the most acceptable FIRST SEM ASPASIA 11 of 15  PHILOSOPHY FIRST QTR STEM | MONTE | SY 2024-2025 ❖ 'shaving off' unlikely explanations ❖ E.g.: The Eiffel Tower is in Paris ❖ the simplest is likely the correct one 2. COHERENCE THEORY ❖ E.g. ❖ Something is true, if it makes sense a. The cyclic multiverse has when placed in a certain context or multiple branes that have situation. collided, causing Big Bangs. ❖ looking for consistency when placed in The universes bounce back a certain context and pass through time until ❖ E.g.: 2+2 = 4 they are pulled back together 3. CONSTRUCTIVIST THEORY and again collide, destroying ❖ Something is true, if it is shaped by the old contents and creating society, culture, and history. them anew. ❖ looking at background influences and b. God did it events and determining how these 7. Formal Logic shaped ideas and truth. ❖ Systematic analysis of the validity of ❖ E.g.: Success means having a stable arguments and statements. job and a family. ❖ Logic often entails the use of syllogism 4. CONSENSUS THEORY or logical arguments presented as a ❖ Something is true, if almost everyone series of related statements believes it to be true ❖ a person looks to ensure the premises ❖ looking at the decisions and views of made about a topic logically connects recognized authorities and influential to the conclusion institutions 8. Thought Experiment ❖ E.g.: Climate change is caused by ❖ imagined scenarios used to illustrate a human activities. certain problem or describe theory 5. PRAGMATIC THEORY ❖ Widely used in many disciplines, ❖ Something is true, if we can put it into thought experiments allow for practice in real life. complex situations to be explored ❖ subjecting the idea to testing and verification DETERMINING THE TRUTH: ❖ E.g.: Washing hands before eating THEORIES ON KNOWLEDGE prevents illness. Knowledge The theories on knowledge provide a varied ❖ a clear awareness and understanding of perspective in analyzing truth. Not one of these something theories, however, can claim to be the most accurate ❖ the product of questions that allow for clear measure of truth answers provided by facts ❖ comprised of ideas and beliefs that we know In determining the validity and reliability of ideas, to be true statements, and claims, we need to use a combination of these theories to arrive at a reliable assessment of “justified, true belief” what is truth. ❖ states that something is true because you believe it to be true, and that there is justification for such belief THEORIES ON KNOWLEDGE 1. CORRESPONDENCE THEORY ❖ Something is true, if it corresponds to reality ❖ by determining if the idea has a basis in reality or is factual FIRST SEM ASPASIA 12 of 15  PHILOSOPHY FIRST QTR STEM | MONTE | SY 2024-2025 DETERMINING THE TRUTH: FALLACIES AND BIASES Propositions 1. Appeal to Ignorance ❖ when you argue that your conclusion ❖ statements about the world or reality that may must be true, because there is no or may not carry truth evidence against it Facts ❖ wrongly shifts the burden of proof ❖ statements or propositions which are away from the one making the claim. observed to be real or truthful ❖ E.g.: You can’t prove that you are Claim innocent, therefore you are guilty 2. Hasty Generalization ❖ statements that cannot be taken as true since ❖ over-generalization fallacy. it is not immediately evident ❖ making a claim based on evidence Conclusion that is just too small ❖ a judgment based on certain facts ❖ you can't make a claim and say that Beliefs something is true if you have only an example or two as evidence ❖ statements that express convictions that are ❖ E.g. “If my brother likes to eat a lot of not easily explained by facts pizza and French fries, and he is Explanations healthy, I can say that pizza and ❖ are statements that assume the claim to be French fries are healthy and don't true and provide reasons why the statement is really make a person fat.” true 3. False Analogy Arguments ❖ Faulty Analogy. ❖ An informal logical fallacy in inductive ❖ series of statements that provide reason to reasoning. convince the reader or listener that a claim or ❖ when someone applies or assumes opinion is truthful that if two things or events have Opinions similarities in one or more respects, ❖ comprised of statements which not only give they are similar in other properties too facts but also provide conclusions or ❖ E.g. “Apples, strawberries, and perspectives regarding certain situation raspberries are all red. They are also all fruits. Therefore, all fruits are red.” Fallacy 4. False Cause ❖ reasoning that is logically invalid, or that ❖ post hoc, ergo propter hoc) undermines the logical validity of an ❖ falsely assumes that one event causes argument another ❖ Some of these fallacies may be intentional ❖ E.g. Every time I wash my car, it rains. ❖ They can be classified by their structure 5. False Authority ❖ Argumentum ad verecundiam (formal fallacies) or content (informal fallacies) ❖ expert fallacy ❖ it is assumed that the opinions of a Formal Fallacy ❖ Premise: All black bears are omnivores. recognized expert in one area should Premise: All raccoons are omnivores. be heeded in another area Conclusion: All raccoons are black bears. ❖ E.g.: “You should take liveraide because Robin Padilla recommends Informal Fallacy it.” ❖ "Nobody has ever proved to me there's a God, 6. False Dilemma so I know there is no God". ❖ false dichotomy or false binary ❖ based on a premise that erroneously limits what options are available. FIRST SEM ASPASIA 13 of 15  PHILOSOPHY FIRST QTR STEM | MONTE | SY 2024-2025 ❖ E.g. “You are either with us, or against BIAS us” ❖ Tendency to hold a particular point of view 7. Ad hominem ❖ They are not necessarily errors in reasoning ❖ “against the man,” but refer to tendencies or influences which ❖ personal attack fallacy. affect the views of the people ❖ E.g.: Situation: A government 1. Correspondence Bias official proposes a new traffic ❖ observers underemphasize situational scheme to alleviate congestion and environmental factors for the in Manila. behavior of an actor while Response: "What do you know overemphasizing dispositional or about fixing traffic? You don't personality factors even know how to drive!" ❖ E.g. 8. Slippery Slope Situation: You're driving along ❖ a party asserts that a relatively small the motorway and another car first step leads to a chain of related cuts in front of you in an events culminating in some significant erratic, haphazard way effect Biased interpretation: You ❖ E.g. If students are required to wear might draw some conclusions uniforms to school, they'll do less about the other driver's shopping at local clothing stores. With character based on their poor less business, the stores will close, driving. Perhaps you think which will hurt our local economy. they're rude, arrogant, or 9. Red Herring aggressive. ❖ irrelevant information is presented 2. Confirmation Bias alongside relevant information, ❖ person's tendency to process distracting attention from that information by looking for, or relevant information interpreting, information that is ❖ may be done intentionally or consistent with their existing beliefs unintentionally ❖ E.g.: During elections, people tend to ❖ E.g.: seek information that paints the Son: "Wow, Dad, it's really hard candidate they support in a positive to make a living on my salary." light, while dismissing any information Father: "Consider yourself that paints them in a negative light lucky, son. Why, when I was 3. Framing your age, I only made $40 a ❖ people decide between options based week." on whether the options are presented 10. Appeal to Tradition with positive or negative connotations ❖ a flawed reasoning that assumes something is good, correct, or beneficial simply because it has been done that way for a long time ❖ "this is right because we've always done it this way“. ❖ E.g. “Men should propose to women because that’s how it’s always been done” 4. Hindsight ❖ knew-it-all-along phenomenon ❖ creeping determinism FIRST SEM ASPASIA 14 of 15  PHILOSOPHY FIRST QTR STEM | MONTE | SY 2024-2025 ❖ common tendency for people to perceive past events as having been more predictable than they were ❖ E.g. Before the exam: I feel like I should study these topics. These might be asked in the exam After the exam: I knew that question will come up in the exam, I should have studied it 5. Conflict of interest ❖ when what is in a person's best interest is not in the best interest of another person or organization to which that individual owes loyalty ❖ E.g. A city council member votes to award a contract to a company owned by their relative, which could benefit their family financially. FIRST SEM ASPASIA 15 of 15