Contemporary History PDF Notes

PROF: Eloisa Betti INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTIONS TESTI: The birth of the modern world (Bayly, Christopher Alan) and THE RISING OF THE WORKING CLASS The age of extremes (Hobsbaw...

PROF: Eloisa Betti INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTIONS TESTI: The birth of the modern world (Bayly, Christopher Alan) and THE RISING OF THE WORKING CLASS The age of extremes (Hobsbawm) KEY INTELLECTUALS IN THIS PERIOD: KARL MARX and FRIEDRICH ENGELS, important for exploitation, ARGOMENTI: seminari industrial revolution, the proletarian 1. Gender, class, global inequality: the international politics of work in the ALFRED MARSHALL, important to understand the influence on nowadays 20th century. Susan Zimmermann, Central European University of Vienna of industrial revolution. He studied the rhythms of industrial society, 2. Gender and labor in the post Yugoslav space, from socialism to thanks to this we started thinking in terms of time, in terms of hours and post-socialism. Chiara Bonfiglioli from University of Venice so on. 3. Women doing men’s work, Italian police women between EMILE DURKHEIM, important for the concept of alienation and the discrimination, inequality and struggles for emancipation. Liliosa Azara, changes in urbanization and urban living. Roma Tre University ADAM SMITH, important to understand the economic aspects of industrialization and economies of scale. (cost advantages repeated by ESAMI: companies when production becomes efficient) Un mock exam con 50 domande a cui rispondere insieme durante una lezione il 18 dicembre. INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION Supply side revolution, resulting from the mechanization of production. Esame al primo appello con 4 domande tra le 50 del mock exam, due per il 19 secolo e due per il 20, bisogna sceglierne una per secolo e rispondere solo a Rapid transition from manufacturing to the modern capitalist factory in quelle due. Un’ora e mezza per rispondere e le risposte devono essere di una which workers and machines are concentrated. pagina. The new source of energy, the steam, replaced human and animal power. Seconda parte dell’esame: esame orale di 15 minuti circa, sul libro scelto (tra INDUSTRIOUS REVOLUTION quelli delle lezioni-seminari) in cui verrà chiesta un’overview del libro, specific Def. by Jean De Vries: industrious revolutions could increase prosperity in a much question (ex a chapter or smt), critical comment. stealthier way without benefit of a rapid ratcheting of industrial production. VALUTAZIONE: The British Empire revolution was a specific and fast process that was Scritto ⅔ evolving in one single country, while in the rest of Europe at the same Orale ⅓ time it was starting this slowly emerging industrial revolution, more widespread in the world, based principally on reorganization of demands ADDITIONAL GROUP AND INDIVIDUAL ACTIVITIES: and resources. If you do it you will get an extra mark (1/30) - Central role of family labor for buying goods and services from Fare una presentazione e presentarla alla fine del corso 19-20 dicembre outside the household. Family was at the same time a production entro 9 ottobre unit, but also an entity who could buy. Summary of 5 mins of the 3 lessons before entro 4 ottobre - Boost to trade and consumption Summary of the seminar women, work and activism entro 16 ottobre - New sense of time discipline Written report of the student presentation entro 30 novembre 2 MAIN FEATURES - Strong link between agriculture and industry Rise of factory system and industrial production - role of merchant/entrepreneurs Role of complex and new technology - Dependance on long-distant markets Intensification of labor Industrial revolution in a global perspective, concept of “divergence” by Proletarization of the workforce Pomeranz, the concept for which the European continent has become the Changes in people’s lives and consumption richest and more developed Changes in cities and growth of urban population Industrial revolution could be replicated in other parts of the world, concept by Rostow who individualize 5 stages of growth to the Industrial revolutions can be replicated, depending on the conditions of the modernization as traditional society - preconditions for take off - take off countries/family structure/traditions, but are seen as a series of - drive to maturity - age of high mass consumption interconnected changes, events and transformations. Industrial revolution as a story of modernization, concept elaborated by They have RELATED REVOLUTIONS: Landes and Hobsbawm 1. Demographic increase → Women and children as a key role in the cotton FACTORY SYSTEM: industry, more than 50% of the workforce. Formed by the contrast between the capitalist entrepreneur and the working 2. Urbanization → mushroom towns, moving from the countrysides to the class/proletariat. The entrepreneur owns the machinery and decides on cities, poor health, pollution production strategies; working methods and hours are no longer the prerogative 3. Agricultural revolution → increase the production, use of new lands, a of the old craftsman and homeworker. more efficient use of existing land, new agrarian practices - The rhythms of work depend on machines. 4. Commercial revolution The capitalist-type factory differs from preindustrial manufacturing not so 5. Transport revolution → 1825 first railway connected to mines → 1830 much in the concentration of workers in one place or the removal of the means passenger line Manchester-Liverpool of production from them, but in the centrality of the machine, which imposes 6. Technological innovation → Technical innovations in cotton spinning and and institutionalizes the division of labor. weaving, steam engine (James Watt), increasing of labor productivity - The old forms of production – handicrafts, home-work, small business – Industrial Revolutions in a FEW WORDS and THEORIES: survive (and in some cases are stimulated by the new industrial activities) Economic growth, key economic sectors, factory productions, use of new - The modern factory becomes the 'vital organ' that determines the technologies metabolism of the entire economic system EX. Manchester had become a center for the cotton industry, which was the key sector of the British Industrial Revolution. It grew from 17’000 to The new consumption system is made by very poor people, the working class. 180’000 inhabitants in 70 years. ➔ Transformation of working organization ➔ Workers become a social class, they are a fundamental part of this new Proto-industrialization, community with pre-industrial manufacturing, industrial e capitalistic system. consumption (consumo), wide-range of economic sectors The factory system didn’t replace immediately the other mean of production but it was a slow process and it included the domestic industry (internal production into the house) → PROTO-INDUSTRIALIZATION industrial production in small units in the countryside to produce goods to be sold in distant market. Ity was edited by Mendel, Kriedte, Medick and Schlumbohm. 3 4 CONGRESS OF VIENNA 1914-1915 - 19th century system produced durable peace and promote peaceful THE VIENNA SYSTEM: network of treaties, institutions and practice developed change, also through repressions because the status quo was promoted in 1813-1815 during the Napoleonic wars and Vienna Congress. thanks to crushing revolutions ➔ Mutual interlocking rights and obligations between the Great Powers. Possible reasons for which it was peaceful: EUROPEAN CONCERT: a system of governing in order to maintain peace, Central Europe was an area of peace because first of all there was a balance of international conferences, bilateral/multilateral negotiations. power in order to avoid the struggle for a new hegemony. For this reason 5 great powers became a governing council for settling serious international monarchs cooperate against war, liberalism, nationalism and revolutions. In questions. fact there was a hegemony, the West was “controlled” and influenced by Britain ➔ The goal was maintaining peace, it actually was a system that reigned until and the East by Russia. WW1, but was it really a peaceful century? ➔ There was an IDEOLOGICAL SPLIT between the liberal-constitutional system that was in auge in the western countries VS the absolutist system in the eastern countries The Vienna system didn’t restore the territorial status quo pre-1815 but it maintained the one established. Even if it was a peaceful period, the rivalries and conflicting aims persisted (as the Anglo-French, Austro-French, Austro-Russian…) and France was included into this system in order to control its power and take advantage from it. 1820s REVOLUTIONS - They brought to a national constitution (Portugal and Spain) and independence (Greece and Italy) - Key role of soldiers and army leaders - Key role of secret societies that wanted to spread revolutionary ideologies and were forbidden. - Coup d’etat (colpi di stato) against absolute rulers 1820 Revolutions in Spain and Portugal 1820/21 Revolts in Naples and Piedmont and their repression 19th century as a pacific century: 1821 Perù and Panama declaration of independence from spain - No general or systemic wars involving all or most of the great powers - Between 1815-1854 and 1871-1914 there were no wars between the five 1822 Greek declaration of independence from the Ottoman Empire Great Powers (Massacre of Chios by Delacroix of 1822 that represents and - Five wars between great powers were limited in duration, scope and supports the Greek cause. Battle of Navarino of 1822), Brazil reasons declaration of independence from Portugal - All great powers of 1815 survived up to 1914 1825 Decmbrist revolt in Russia after Alexander I ‘s death 5 6 1830s REVOLUTIONS: COMMON GOALS: - Victory of revolution in France and Belgium broke the unit of the - Constitutions and representative institutions reactionary powers - Civil rights (association, press…) - Moderate liberal regimes now prevailed in the west of the Rhine - National rights (Hungary, Poland), national liberation and unification - Unresolved national questions in Germany, Itali, Poland and Hungary (explain the borning of independent states and the questioning for more FEBRUARY Revolution in Paris, proclamation of the Republic of the republic rights for specific nationalities) in France and universal male suffrage, new workers’ - Emergence of new workers-based political movement - crucial 1848 insurrection in june repressed (rebellious population and their questioning) MARCH Uprising in Munich, Vienna, Budapest, Venice, Cracow, Milan, Berlin - emerging of the national question in the Austrian 1830 Revolution in Paris, Louis Philippe D’Orleans called “King of the Empire. Spreading of the ideas in European countries. French” MARCH Hungarian independence declared, Hungarian nationalists 1830 Revolt in Hesse, Brunswick and Saxony defeated 1849 1831 Insurrection in Lyons JUNE Rising in Prague and Paris crashed 1831 Revolts in Poland crushed by Russia DECEMBER Louis Napoleon elected President of French Republic VS 1830-31 Revolution in Belgium and independence from the Netherlands Emperor Ferdinand of Austria abdicated (succeeded by Franz Joseph I) Between the 18th and 19th centuries, the word NATION began to be used to INSURRECTION/REVOLUTION: insurrection is related to arms, barricades, define the collectivity that has the right to exercise political sovereignty over a against a specific power; while revolution is a wider concept and contains an specific territory. It happens because of the multiple declaration of ideology, a big group of people and has a political consequence. independence and the birth of new countries. 1848s REVOLUTIONS ➔ Art 3 of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen (1789): “The Is the only revolution on a continental scale that occurred in Europe in principle of all sovereignty resides essentially in the Nation” peacetime. Considered a challenge to the Vienna System since Austria and NATIONALISM represent the fundamental POLITICAL LANGUAGE of 19th Prussia, which were the pivotal states of the Restoration, were fully involved. century in Europe, it was born in France and than spread throughout Europe MAIN ACTORS: through: Bourgeois elites (lawyers, university, professors, civil servants) - A process of an imitative nature (inspired by the principles of the french Workers and urban poor revolution in the fight against absolutist regimes) European democrats and intellectuals - A process of a reactive nature (against the aggressive behavior of the Convergence between different political movements Napoleonic army) These revolutions were caused due to political, social and economic discontents and movements. There had been an economic crisis in 1846-47, increasing unemployment, famine, poverty and social distress that helped create a fertile ground for a revolution + also nationalist movements had a wide role. 7 8  The major obstacle to nationalism are: ENLIGHTENMENT AND ROMANTIC MATRIX VOLUNTARIST MATRIX - Reality does not reflect ethno-linguistic homogeneity - After 1815 the great powers opposed nationalism, because they saw it as a JEAN JAQUES ROUSSEAU nation as a Claims the natural feature of the threateningly subversive language product of the general will nation and is based on presumed At the same time, PATRIOTS were well accepted into the country. objective foundations as language, religion, ethnicity, territory, common EX: MAZZINI AND THE SISTERS NATIONS: history, things that have always 1831 Giovine Italia existed. 1834 Giovine Europa ERNST RENAN nation as an everyday JOHANN GOTTFRIED HERDER Quotation by Mazzini “I love my homeland because I love my homelands” plebiscite based on the periodic nation as the cultural and spiritual Art.4 of the constitution of the Roman Republic “The Republic regards all renewal of a will and a feeling of unity of a people of a specific people as brothers” belonging territory. 1848 was very important for the conceptualization of this concept of nation for Romantic culture was very important as the idea of identity, of belonging to two main reasons: something as a group, as a community of people. - The class conflicts that break the (supposed) homogeneity of the nation, It is on the basis of this presumed commonality of identity elements that the Karl Marx and the Manifesto of the Communist Party. collectivity thus defined (the nation) is granted the right to exercise political - The idea of brotherhood between nations professed by Mazzini begins to sovereignty over a territory that is thought to belong to it historically. crack, the principle of nationality was not well respected since there were multinational empires and the power structure goes over this concept. ➔ NATION-STATE: a state whose borders correspond to the settlement (E.g. the Prussians bloodily suppress the Polish revolt in Posnania; Russians areas of a particular national community. and Turks together suppress the revolt of the Danubian principalities of During the whole 19th century there was a process of creation of national Moldavia and Wallachia; The Hungarians are also crushed by the Austrians borders, of national states and the feeling of identity for the inhabitants of the and Russians) state. There are different foundations of national belonging/citizenship: LIBERALISM: Free market, civil society, constitutional and parliamentary - IUS SOLI, (right of soil) historical evolutionary relationship between institutions, exercise of political rights reserved only for those presumed to have institutions, citizen and territory, you got it if you born there the ability (the wealthiest and most educated, women excluded). - IUS SANGUINIS, (right of blood) existence of an original ethno-cultural community, you got it if your parents have it DEMOCRACY: Republic and universal male suffrage (would better enable the nation to express its sovereignty) ⬇ In the 1960s came also the critique of the natural character of nations, a The two political models of the nations critical discussion of the naturalization of the concept of nation. - Hobsbawm and Ranger, the invention of tradition - Anderson, imagined communities ITALIAN UNIFICATION GERMAN UNIFICATION - Gellner, nations and nationalism 1859-1861 1866-1871 LEAD TO A UNITED NATIONAL LEAD TO A NATIONAL FEDERAL Nationalism defined itself against others: importance of armed conflict MONARCHY EMPIRE between states but also conflicts against a constituent part of population. We Second Reich after the Holy Roman find one nation against another, but also into the communities who live inside Empire ended in 1806 the country. 9 10 CONCEPT OF RISORGIMENTO At the time there were 39 states united in the german confederation: 35 Historiographical term referring to the complex intellectual and political process, governed in dynastic form, 4 free cities (Hamburg, Bremen, Lubeck, Frankfurt). the series of economic and social transformations, literary and cultural attitudes, Only Schleswig-Holstein under the King of Denmark. diplomatic and military events which, between the end of the 18th century and the KEY FIGURES were the Emperor, the Chancellor, The parliament composed of 19th century, intertwined and contrasted, led Italy from centuries of political two chambers. → Otto Von Bismarck-Schönhausen was the Chancellor. division to unity, from monarchical absolutism to the liberal and constitutional state of the Savoy dynasty. From 1834 - Zollverein the German Custom Union. In 1848 the King of Prussia refused the German crown offered to him by the Frankfurt Parliament 1864 - Austria and Prussia against Denmark for control of the Duchy of Schleswig (Schleswig to Prussia, Holstein to Austria) 1866 - Austro-Prussian War Prussia (allied with Italy) defeats Austria 1867 - End of the German Confederation German states north of the Main are united in the Northern Confederation headed by Wilhelm I 1870 – Franco-Prussian War (September 1, 1870, battle of Sedan) 18 January 1871 in Versailles, in the Hall of Mirrors, the sovereigns of the German states offered Wilhelm I the crown of Emperor of Germany The German Empire is now a federation of 25 states composed by Emperor, Chancellor, Imperial Parliament (Reichstag, Bundesrat) The unification was a major result of the military power of the Prussian monarchy. ➔ The Reichstag is elected by secret universal male suffrage, but has little power. ➔ The Bundesrat consists of the representatives of the 25 states, i.e. 58 members (17 of them representing Prussia) GERMAN UNIFICATION - More developed from an industrial and economic point of view - Differences between the culture in Germany were much more different from Italy, they were more united while in Italy there was too much diversity - Ruhr area was almost deindustrialized - Heavy industry and military expenditure, German industry grew a rate of 10.2% a year - Marginalization of parliamentary institutions - Domination of a conservative and militaristic landed aristocracy 11 12  In the process of unification foreign countries played an important role, for example France who supported the Papal State and ignored the will of Italians to make Rome the new capital. IMPORTANT THINGS: Proclamation of the Roman Republic and The Five Days of Milan → any conclusion at the end of the first war (1849), situation back as before. Jan. 1848 The smoking strike in Milan against Austrian tax authorities, causes riots in Lombardy-Veneto. An insurrection spread from Palermo throughout Sicily, a regional government was set up and independence declared in April. February 1848 Constitution granted in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, in the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, in the Kingdom of Sardinia and in the Papal State. First political elections in several states in Spring 1848 18/03/1848 The Venetian people take to the streets with tricolor flags and the Austrian soldiers open fire on the crowd. Few days later, Daniele Manin proclaimed the Republic and the Austrian troops left Venice. 18/03/1848 The 'Five Days' of popular insurrection against the Austrians began in Milan. On March 23, 1848 the liberation was celebrated in Milan. Carlo Alberto intervene against Austria. April/May 1848 Pius IX declares that he does not want to take part in the FIRST ITALIAN INDEPENDENCE WAR 1848-49 conflict against Austria, after but popular demonstrations with a letter invites WW1 for some scholars is considered the fourth Italian Independence War. the Emperor of Austria to recognise the Italian nation. MOST IMPORTANT PLACES and DATES and ACTORS: May-July 1848 Lombardy, Venice and Parma vote on their annexation to - Five Days of Milan the Kingdom of Sardinia - Papal State July-August 1848 At Custoza, Austrian troops defeat the Piedmontese - France supported and influenced the Papal State army, abandoning the territories conquered. An armistice is signed - Tuscany between Piedmont and Austria. Habsburg troops enter Milan, Modena, - Austria-Hungary Empire, which had the north-west of Italy Reggio Emilia and the gates of Bologna - Republic of Venice 05/02/1849 The Constituent Assembly declares the Pope's temporal power - Two “indigenous” secular dynasties: SAVOIA in Kingdom of Sardinia + forfeited and proclaims the Roman Republic. Pius IX invokes the help of the Piedmont and BORBONE in Kingdom of the Two Sicilies (with Spanish European powers to re-establish the Pope's authority. influences). 05/03/1849 Giuseppe Mazzini arrives in Rome, where Garibaldi is Italy, thanks to marriages, was much related to other countries for the birth of already. A triumvirate of the Roman Republic composed of Giuseppe dynasties, than united between the various states inside. Mazzini, Carlo Armellini and Aurelio Saffi is formed in Rome. Mixture of revolutions, revolts, insurrections and the result of 1848 wasn’t anything good until the end of these three independence wars. 13 14  March 1849 Carlo Alberto declares war on Austria. Radetzky meets THIRD ITALIAN INDEPENDENCE WAR AND OCCUPATION Vittorio Emanuele II (the new king) who accepts the conditions of the armistice. OF ROME 1866-1870 Italy is now a Kingdom with Vittorio Emanuele II as his King. June 1849 The French cannonade the city of Rome for the whole month (500 dead and wounded among the defenders of the Roman Republic). Secret alliance treaty with Prussia, in the event of Austro-Prussian July/1849 The new Constitution of the Roman Republic was proclaimed conflict Veneto would go to Italy. June 1866 Prussia and Italy in war as the last symbolic act. French soldiers enter Rome and a state of siege is against Austria. proclaimed. Giuseppe Mazzini, Aurelio Saffi and other Republican patriots, Beginning of the Third Italian Independence War. expelled from Rome, take the road to exile. October 1866 peace treaty in Vienna and ceremony of concession of 06/07/1849 The poet Goffredo Mameli died in Rome as a result of wounds Veneto to the Kingdom of Italy sustained during the defense of the city. He had composed Fratelli d'Italia. France withdraw its troops from Rome and the Italian government August 1849 Austria and the Kingdom of Sardinia sign a peace treaty in occupies Rome Milan, which restores the pre-1848 situation. August 1870 the Pope Pius IX rejected the proposal of negotiations for Rome and the Italian troops entered the Papal State. 20 SEPTEMBER Italian soldiers SECOND ITALIAN INDEPENDENCE WAR 1859-1860 entered in PORTA PIA and in october a plebiscite sanctions the annexation of Insurrections in the Papal State and in Tuscany Rome and Lazio to the Kingdom of Italy → the Pope excommunicated the King. 13/01/1859 Unipd was closed by the Austrian authorities because of students? demonstrations in favor of Italian Independence. April-July 1859 Austrian troops invade Piedmont, Franco-Piedmontese forges guided by Napoleon III with Vittorio Emanuele II enter in Milan. Dictatorship to Vittorio Emanuele II in Bologna. Nov 1859 peace conference with the Austrians who ceded Lombardy. May 1860 Garibaldi (he was in latin america before guiding others insurrections and he is considered a hero) accepted the proposal to lead an expedition of volunteers to Sicily to help the rebels. The “Expedition of The Thousand”. Armistice in Palermo with the Bourbons. Enters Naples with more voluntary troops from Lombardy (15’000). Vittorio Emanuele arrives in Naples and Garibaldi leaves for Sardinia. March 1861 Vittorio Emanuele II assumed the title of King of Italy and with the formation of the government Cavour assumed the presidency. He defines the Roman question and says that “only Rome could be the capital of Italy” With the famous slogan “o roma o morte” pronounced in Aspromonte from garibaldi for another expedition to Rome with a lot of volunteers. He is intercepted by royal troops because they couldn’t risk the support of the French, he was wounded in a firefight and taken as prisoner, this provoked anti-government demonstrations all over italy. 15 16  IMPERIALISM COLONY: in international law, means a territory whose sovereignty does not State policy, practice, or advocacy of extending power and dominion, especially belong to the indigenous population but to a foreign state that occupies it by direct territorial acquisition or by gaining political and economic control of militarily, uses its natural resources and administers it with a particular legal other areas. system under which the rights of the indigenous population are not equal to those of the citizens of the occupying state. Policy of power and supremacy of a state aimed at creating a situation of direct or indirect dominance over other nations by military conquest, territorial PROTECTORATE: In international law, an institution whereby a protector state annexation, economic exploitation or political hegemony. assumed the obligation of protection of a protected, militarily weak and less developed state, and this in turn, without losing its status as an international MODERN CONCEPT OF IMPERIALISM subject, accepted that the former exercised interference in its internal and A world policy, typical of the great powers and prompted by their especially international affairs. ever-increasing technological-industrial development, aimed at achieving hegemonic political-economic as well as cultural dominance over less developed nations. MAIN PERIODS: 15th century - middle of 18th England, France, the Netherlands, Portugal and Spain built empires in the Americas, India and the East Indies (strong reaction to it from mid 18th to mid 19th century) Mid 19th - WW1 Russia, Italy, Germany, USA and Japan were added as imperialistic countries and financial control became a preferred form of imperialism (after WW1 the League of Nation contrasted it) WW1 - WW2 Japan renewed its empire with the Manchuria war. Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany extended in Africa and east Europe. The Soviet Union also expanded its borders. ➔ Strong belief from the European countries’ point of view that there are underdeveloped territories, such as Africa, South America and Asia, only because of their cultural, industrial and technological differences. Until a few decades ago the concept of underdeveloped countries or countries of the third world, but it is not right to use these definitions. AFRICA WAS CONSIDERED A SCRAMBLE in the period from 1884 to 1914, when the European colonizers partitioned the largely unexplored African continent into protectorates, colonies and “free trade areas” 17 18  MARXIST INTERPRETATION: (also Lenin) focus on the consequences of IDEOLOGICAL BASIS: the capital accumulations that generate internal contradictions that found SOCIAL DARWINISM, from Charls Dawin “The Origin of the Species”, expression in new and all-encompassing forms of imperialism. European countries misinterpreted it and instead of a theory about The struggle for control culminated, in Lenin’s view, in the First World evolution where the fittest is more able to survive they took it as the right War of the strongest to subdue over the weakest. LIBERAL/CONSERVATIVE INTERPRETATION: multiplicity of diplomatic, RACE CLASSIFICATION and BIOLOGICAL RACISM, De Gobineau saying political, social, and cultural, as well as economic, explanations that the mixing of races produces a “degeneration”; Galton saying that empire-building including prestige and strategic genetic inheritance of fundamental physical and mental differences; De DOMESTIC POLITICAL CONSIDERATIONS: imperialism as Lapouge is the founder of eugenics and was in favor of euthanasia for counterweight to the democratization process; governments in racially “imperfect” individuals; Chamberlain setting the Germanic racial agreement with military and economic powers to strengthen national superiority (purest) who influenced nazism. cohesion. COLONIALISM and BIOLOGICAL RACISM, with the civilizing mission of Europe, the extinction of inferior races, concept of Lebensraum (coined in 1901 by the German Ratzel, the view of the non-European world as a To study the history of imperialism and empire is nowadays to investigate an colonisable space, reserved for groups considered biologically superior) important slice of world history, not to be obliged to take sides in an ideological ORIENTALISM by SAID, the Orient not only as legitimate prey for debate on topical issues. Western countries endowed with 'knowledge and power', but also as a historical place of identification of a despotic principle. The study of the non-European world has reflected developments in European MONTESQUIEU with oriental despotism. historiography. These intellectual trends, allied to the liberating consequences MAX WEBER Legal-bureaucratic power (West) vs Charismatic power and of the end of the Cold War, have begun to stimulate a fundamental traditional power (East). Differential right (that of the colonies was reconsideration of European perspectives on the non-European world. different from that of the mother country) RECENT APPROACHES IN THE STUDY OF IMPERIALISM ECONOMIC AND MILITARY BASIS: CULTURAL HISTORY and SOCIAL HISTORY including ethnicity and gender. - Second industrial revolution ECONOMIC HISTORY has been extended into the non-European world through - Steel and chemistry studies of the environment, the labor force, and transnational corporations, - Revolution in transport and communications which have helped to revive interest in business history. - Propeller steamships and telegraph network (from 1865 submarine links POLITICAL and DIPLOMATIC HISTORY reconsider the creation of ‘nation’ between USA and GB in India) states at home and abroad; including the study of decision-making and the - 1866 Alfred Nobel patents dynamite ‘unofficial mind’ of imperialism. - Great technological and military gap Role of military hierarchies and strengthening of the executive over the HISTORY OF SCIENCE has received new impetus from studies of the legislative AGAINST Parliament/extension of electoral suffrage. relationship between disease, medication, and the exercise of colonial authority. - Military vs. social expenditure MILITARY HISTORY now encompasses matters such as the social basis of - Imperialism as counterweight to the democratization process recruitment, the cultivation of a combative ethos in a civil society, and the - Authoritarian space is consolidated ‘policing’ of subject peoples. - Imperialism of the masses 19 20 COLONIALISM: the colonial race fuelled a new form of nationalism. From the IMPORTANCE OF TYPOGRAPHY: became important as an instrument for Europe of Nations to the Europe of Powers. journalism, typographers created their own union with their own pamphlet and Values of authority, discipline, hierarchy, power against Values of freedom, could spread their ideals. → RADICAL TYPOGRAPHY. brotherhood, democracy UTOPIAN SOCIALISM POLITICAL ZIONISM AND THE BALFOUR DECLARATION Given by the others, something idealistic that in reality cannot be http://coldwarstudies.com/2012/11/29/palestine-israel-timeline-the-be achieved. ginning/ THE BOER WARS SCIENTIFIC SOCIALISM https://www.nam.ac.uk/explore/transvaal-war Based on a rigorous economic-political analysis of the capitalistic system https://www.nam.ac.uk/explore/boer-war of production. KARL MARX (1818-1883) LABOUR MOVEMENTS, FRIEDRICH ENGELS (1820-1895) SOCIALISM AND INTERNATIONALISM Published the MANIFESTO OF THE COMMUNIST PARTY SAINT-SIMON: French aristocrat who theorized the emergence of a future ➔ A specter is haunting Europe — the specter of communism. All the powers of society dominated by producers and technicians capable of employing old Europe have entered into a holy alliance to exorcize this specter: Pope technological innovations for the benefit of the entire community. and Tsar, Metternich and Guizot, French Radicals and German police-spies. ROBERT OWEN: Welsh industrialist and social reformer who formed a model Communism is also important for the revolutions among 1848 because they industrial community at New Lanark, Scotland, and pioneered cooperative claimed the fall of every social class, social equalities, workers rights. societies. Workers were defined as PROLETARIANS while the opposite social class was CHARLES FOURIER: French aristocrat who theorized THE FALANSTERI, which the BOURGEOISIE. are many small communities that can be self-sufficient. The idea of managing ➔ BOURGEOIS AND PROLETARIAN (Chapter 1) collectively the communities. Until now, the history of all existing societies is the history of class struggles. ETIENNE CABET: The first to use the term COMMUNISM to refer to a future Oppressor and oppressed stood in constant opposition to one another, for this society in which goods and means of production are owned and managed reason in a revolutionary reconstitution of society there must be the common ruin collectively. of the contending classes. The modern BOURGEOIS SOCIETY comes from the FEUDAL one and has not WHAT IS PROPERTY? Property is a theft destroyed class antagonism. Instead, it has established new classes, new PIERRE-JOSEPH PROUDHON inequalities, new forms of struggle. One of the fathers of anarchism, advocating a transformation that combats every center of power and leads to the establishment of a stateless and perfectly ➔ REVOLUTION can arise neither from the 'utopias' of theorists nor from egalitarian society, where producers have ownership of the means of production the conspiracies of a few, but only from the contradictions inherent in and organize themselves cooperatively (principle of 'mutualism') capitalist development. - Stateless society, free credit to cooperative societies ➔ CLASS STRUGGLE between the proletariat and the bourgeoisie must be - Organized cooperatively consummated. - Anti-authoritarian society based on federalism and decentralization of power 21 22 INTERNATIONAL CHARACTER: “Proletarians of all countries unite!” Marxism FIRST INTERNATIONAL 1864-1876 needed to be spread in every country of the world in order to destroy Or the INTERNATIONAL WORKING MEN’S ASSOCIATION as the first inequalities and capitalism. international federation of workers’ and socialist organization. A place where socialists, marxists, communists, anarchists discussed their differences and about how to reach the revolution. ANARCHIST MOVEMENT: Another important movement also from an intellectual point of view, he had Here comes to an end the disputes between Marx and Bakunin. Bakunin as leader. He thought that the union of proletarians and the rural Headquarters first in London then in New York working class (ALL THE EXPLOITED) was the only possibility of revolution. Composed by different intellectual movements ➔ It also had an internationalist vocation. Created very divided sides, the discussion was violent because they had to put forward an idea MARX BAKUNIN 1866-69: Clash between anarchists followers of Proudhon and socialist The protagonist of the revolution is The protagonist of the revolution is all the industrial proletariat the exploited and in particular the followers of Marx. peasantry 1869-1872 Clash between anarchists of Bakunin and Marx, final decision for the The proletariat must organize itself The revolution must be prepared by only way to revolution that the proletariat had to form a party and organize into a party and engage in political propaganda and demonstrative themselves. struggle actions (such as terrorist attacks), but then it must break out and develop In 1872 at the Fifth Congress held in The Hague, the anarchists were effectively spontaneously, without being subject expelled from the International, which passed a resolution stating that: "In its to the leadership of a party battle against the collective power of the landowning classes, the proletariat can only act by forming itself into a political party". The proletariat must seize political Every state is a liberticidal tool. Even power and the state to crush the 'dictatorship of the proletariat' is counterrevolution seen as the deception of a new caste of rulers SECOND INTERNATIONAL 1889-ww1 Founded in Paris in 1889, during this Congress, May Day was declared as an The ultimate goal of the “socialization This goal is pursuable within the international working-class holiday. of the means of production” is framework of a federation of free through state centralisation and selfgoverning communes (abolition of It was a federation of autonomous national parties of Marxist inspiration; planning all forms of state authority) anarchists were expelled in 1896 and formed its own party. Important intellectuals because they had power to influence society and their After 11 years from the foundation was introduced the executive body of the ideals changed the form of organization of the countries. They also debated INTERNATIONAL SOCIALIST BUREAU. about these things in organizations. Headquarters was in Brussels, where the Second Congress of the International met in 1891. By 1912, the Second International represented the socialist and social democratic parties of all European countries, the United States, Canada, and Japan, with a membership of nearly nine million 23 24 SOCIALIST PARTIES IN EUROPE: INTERNAL DIALECTIC WITHIN SOCIALISM BETWEEN 1875 THE SOCIALIST WORKERS’ PARTY OF GERMANY was founded; the REFORMISTS AND MAXIMALISTS first important socialist party in European history (in 1891 it took the name German Social Democratic Party) RADICAL LINE: Rosa Luxemburg, Karl Liebknecht 1880 THE FRENCH WORKERS’ PARTY was born (from 1905 named SFIO The very goal is revolution and the dismantlement of social classes. Section française de l'Internationale ouvrière) INTERMEDIATE LINE: Karl Kautsky 1889 AUSTRIAN SOCIAL DEMOCRATIC PARTY The time for revolution is not near, that remains the goal towards which society 1892 ITALIAN WORKERS’ PARTY (from 1893 ITALIAN SOCIALIST is heading; meanwhile, the party must work to improve the living conditions of WORKERS’ PARTY and from 1895 ITALIAN SOCIALIST PARTY) the working class → CLOSE TO BERNSTEIN POSITION 1898 RUSSIAN SOCIAL DEMOCRATIC WORKERS’ PARTY REFORMIST LINE: Bernstein FOUNDATION OF SPD A German socialist who put forward the idea of REVISIONISM in the book “The The SOZIALDEMOKRATISCHE PARTEI DEUTSCHLANDS was a model for other Assumptions of Socialism and the Tasks of Social Democracy” in which he talks parties, born as the first workers’ association in Germany founded by Lassalle about the importance of the improvement of the working class’ conditions. with the idea of defeating capitalism through the establishment of producers’ cooperatives. He observes that the Marxian prediction of a society that would be increasingly ➔ Liebknecht and Bebel founded the social democratic workers’ party divided between proletariat and capitalists turned out to be wrong. endorsing Marx’s teachings and his commitment to class struggle and ➔ In his opinion, the conditions of at least part of the working class have revolution. → They opposed the one founded by Lasselle. improved. ➔ The Social Democratic Party should not immediately aim for revolution At the socialist congress held in the central German city of Gotha, the Lassallean but should rather strive to further improve the living conditions of the and Marxist wings debated a new program and founded the Socialist Workers’ working class through a policy of reforms, in collaboration with other Party of Germany, which was renamed the Social Democratic Party of Germany. non-socialist democratic political forces. - Modern mass political party - A programme, statutes, governing bodies, individual memberships (membership cards), a newspaper (the Vorwärts), collateral associations MUTUALISM - Trade union connection A survival strategy of the industrial proletariat, since it is a complex of - 400’000 members at the end of the century institutions on an associative basis governed by the principle of mutual aid and reciprocal benefits. SYMBOLS AND RITUALS referred to socialist parties: - The rising sun ➔ Idea to give something today and tomorrow something will come in return - Ears of wheat ➔ No strict correspondence between service-given and service-received - Red roses ➔ Voluntary nature, principle of solidarity, lack of profit motive - Image of the workers breaking chains ➔ Important before the welfare state - Red flag ➔ Created sociability, education, workers organization/trade unions - Hammer and sickle (falce e martello) - Red/golden five-pointed star - May Day, 1 of May as the day of workers - Songs - Slogans 25 26 WORKERS’ MOVEMENT TRADE UNION ORGANIZATIONS FIRST WORLD WAR AND ITS INTERPRETATION Other forms of organization between the 19th and the 20th century that come Considered a watershed because it is the end of the concert of Europe, the end from mutualism. Alliance between small leagues of workers, on a territorial of a long lasting peace, the end of 19th century and the industry changes. basis. It’s a WORLD WAR since it involved non-European states such as the US COOPERATIVE SOCIETIES: economic subjects with the aim of giving the and Japan. It also had a global and long-term impact. working classes access to primary consumer goods; promoted by liberals, It is a GREAT WAR in terms of size and the potential of destructive armies enlightened bourgeoisie, Mazzinians It is a TOTAL WAR because it influenced all the different aspects of society, this war had two fronts: the military and the homefront. There is a RESISTANCE LEAGUES: expression of the workers only and had a programme total character of mobilization in the various countries that opposed the interests of the employers; use of strikes It is a MASS WAR because it’s the conflict with more deaths, 65 million REVOLUTIONARY SYNDICALISM: (also called anarcho-syndicalism), anarchist soldiers were involved. It was a mass slaughter inspiration, the general strike as a fuse for revolution, spread in France, Italy, It is a TRENCH WAR (there was an extensive use of trench in the Western Spain, Us (IWW) in the early 20thh century front). There were terrible living conditions in them + NO MAN’S LAND which was an empty part of the front between the two sides of the war in Mutual aid societies in Italy which if someone stepped over they were shot. Also, trenches were long Called mutual aid societies (friendly societies), they were regulated by law lasting, war wasn’t moving in there. in 1886, mutual aid societies considered as a possible solution to the social question based on the spirit of welfare and solidarity of the working class. NEW TECHNOLOGIES IN ARMY If we think about concrete armies ➔ Support for the middle classes and entrepreneurs, from different - Rapid fire cannons, smokeless gunpowder, portable machine guns, traditions (republican, Mazzinian, radical, socialist) poisoning gas ➔ Incubators of the first trade union organizations If we think about technological innovation in transportation means In 1885 there were 4,772 registered companies with a total of 781,491 - Naval army, fighter planes, tanks, submarines, crucial role of railways for members in the Italian context transporting troops and supplies Role of the Chambers of Labour: territorial-based trade union WW1 changes the constitution of the state, industry and society. It was an organization bringing together members of different professional unions, accelerator and catalyst of industrial development since the industrial process dealing with placement management, education, assistance, mediation was devoted to war production, in fact there was a militarization of between workers and employers strategically important industries. Also the state intervened in the economy and controlled the production in order to meet the war effort (for example with the creation of ad hoc offices). ➔ Radical change in the relationship between state, economy and society About SOCIAL CHANGES, there was food rationing, increase in public debt (start of international loan system after partial failure of domestic loans) and the importance of the press increases. ➔ Censorship of the press and propaganda offices, Repression of civil liberties, strikes and trade union negotiations, Religious and lay offices for assistance and propaganda. 27 28 HOME FRONT ALLIANCES DURING WW1 Public opinion in favor of the war: 2 million volunteers in the UK, others in the other belligerent countries, enthusiastic demonstrations at the departure of soldiers Pro-war culture: irrationalist cultural currents, nationalist and anti-democratic movements, revolutionary trade unionists Crisis of socialist internationalism: the most important socialist parties in the belligerent countries voted for war credits or participated in national union governments (except Russia, Italy and the USA) Benedict xv’s position vs attitude of national church: hierarchies of support, spiritual assistance and blessing of troops END OF THE SECOND INTERNATIONAL The final session of the INTERNATIONAL SOCIALIST BUREAU was held in Brussels on July 29 of 1914 and was decided the strong position against the war. ALLIANCES: “... further intensify their demonstrations against the war, for peace, and for the - ALLIES, triple entente with Britain, France, Italy, Russia settlement of the Austro-Serbian conflict by international arbitration.” - CENTRAL POWER, Germany, Austria, Ottoman Empire The 10th SOCIALIST CONGRESS planned for August in Vienna was canceled since the threat of war had become imminent. BEGINNING OF THE WAR - EVENTS OF 1914 Battle of the Marne (6-12 September) and Flanders: consolidation of the WOMEN, WORK AND THE HOME FRONT western front from the North Sea to the Swiss border (beginning of the More and more women entered the labor market, especially in VISIBLE JOBS. "position war", central role of the trenches). Before they worked, of course, but they were invisible and their work wasn’t Battle of Tannenberg and the Masurian Lakes: Russian offensive on the valued. During WW1 they started working in the manufacturing and war eastern front industry. EVENTS OF 1915 ➔ Mistrust and hostility towards women Bulgaria enters the conflict with the Central Powers; invasion of Serbia ➔ Controversion to peace economy War at sea: British naval blockade, German submarine counter-blockade, ➔ They became political movement after WW1 and pressured the sinking of the English transatlantic liner Lusitania1915 governments to have their jobs back and have more political weight in the Italy enters the war with the Triple Entente (Allies); Italian offensives on society the Isonzo and the Karst EVENTS AT THE BEGINNING OF WW1 EVENTS OF 1916 1. Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to austrian hungarian Battle of Verdun (600,000 killed) throne, in sarajevo on 28 june 1914 Battle of the Somme (1 million dead) 2. June-July European diplomacy does not prevent escalation Naval Battle of Jutland 3. Ultimatum to Serbia: accused of being responsible for the assasination Italian-Austrian front: Austrian punitive expedition (Cesare Battisti and 4. Austria declares war on Serbia 28 July 1914 Fabio Filzi hanged in Trento) and Italian counter-offensive on the Isonzo 29 30 EVENTS OF 1917 ITALY AT WAR War at sea: German submarine offensive There were different positions towards the war, those who did not want italy to Italian defeat at Caporetto and Italian retreat to M. Grappa and Piave enter it, those who were neutral and those who wanted the war so bad. Entry into the war of the USA and also of Greece, China, Brazil and NEUTRALISTS: PSI, catholics, Giolitti, neither join nor sabotage other countries of the American continent. INTERVENTIONISTS: "Peace 'offensive' of Pope Benedict XV and Charles I of Austria DEMOCRATIC IRREDENTISTS: Battisti, social reformists, radical Anti-war demonstrations in Italy, France and England progressives, republicans, Garibaldinians, conflict as a continuation of EVENTS OF 1918 risorgimento struggles LIBERAL CONSERVATIVES: Salandra, Franchetti and Sonnino ARMISTICE OF BREST-LITOVSK: revolutionary Russia withdraws NATIONALISTS: Corradini from the conflict, ceding ¼ of its European territories. REVOLUTIONARY TRADE UNIONS: Labriola, Corridoni, Mussolini after Battle of Amiens, German defeat and retreat from France and Belgium being expelled from the PSI Bulgaria and Turkey call for an armistice Battle of Vittorio Veneto and Villa Giusti armistice with Austria (3 Mobilization of the interventionists, supported by distinguished intellectuals, November) artistic movements such as the Futurists, young people, students ARMISTICE OF RETHONDES signed by the German provisional government led by the Social Democrat Ebert (11 November), following 26 April 1915: Secret Pact of London concluded by Salandra and Sonnino with the sailors' mutiny in Kiel and the escape of Kaiser Wilhelm II. the Triple Entente/Allies (Italy had previously signed the Triple Alliance with Austria-Hungary and Germany) 23 May 1915: Italy entered the war against Austria ARMENIAN GENOCIDE The Armenian genocide refers to the physical annihilation of Armenian 1915: four Isonzo/Carso offensives (loss of 250,000 men) Christian people living in the OttomanEmpire from 1915 through autumn 1916. 1916: Austrian punitive expedition, new government with P. There were approximately 1.5 million Armenians living in the multiethnic Boselli Ottoman Empire in 1915. At least 664,000 and possibly as many as 1.2 million died during the 1917: defeat of Caporetto 300,000 prisoners replacement of genocide, either in massacres and individual killings, or from systematic ill Cadorna by Diaz, new government with V.E.Orlando treatment, exposure, and starvation. https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/the-armenian-genocide-1 1918: Offensive on the Piave and Victory at Vittorio 915-16-overview Veneto Societies were influenced by the war, after it the representatives of countries chose how to make propaganda. For example with the myth of the fallen, focusing on mental problems, women started asking for more rights. 31 32  EUROPE AFTER THE WW1- PARIS CONFERENCE 1919-1920 TREATY OF SAINT GERMAIN and TRIANON With Austria and Hungary Protagonists: Wilson (USA) Lloyd George (England), Clemenceau (France) Constitution of the Austrian Republic (reduced to 85’000 square km) Orlando (Italy) Constitution of the Czechoslovakian Republic (with Bohemia, moravia and Defeated countries are not admitted, as for instance Germany. The winning Slovakia) countries stipulated other treaties with each defeated country. Constitution of the Hungarian Republic Democratic peace vs. punitive peace: interests of the victorious countries Constitution of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia (with Serbia, Montenegro, Croatia, prevail, they imposed sanctions and restrictions on the defeated countries in Slovenia, Bosnia-Herzegovina) order to contain their power. TREATY OF NEUILLY with Bulgaria The American president Wodrow Wilson stipulated a document of 14 points in Bulgaria is deprived of its outlet to the Aegean Sea and must cede territories to which he laid the basis for a peace period. In reality none of these points were Greece, Romania, Yugoslavia. respected and the years between the two world wars are not peaceful. ➔ The Fourteen Points of Woodrow Wilson's peace programme TREATY OF SEVRES with Turkey - Principles of nationality and self-determination of peoples with respect for At first it was rejected by Ataturk Mustafa Kemal, who started a war for minorities independence, with negotiations in 1923 with the allies the TREATY OF - Freedom of trade LAUSANNE came to an end. - Public political discussion, no more secret treaties/alliances. Syria and Lebanon in the French orbit - Arms reduction Palestine, Transjordan and Iraq in British orbit - Formation of the League of Nations Straits in international orbit, Smyrna and Adrianople to Greece TREATY OF VERSAILLES with Germany Alsace and Lorraine + Saarland mining basin for 15 years to France; Upper Silesia THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS (June 1919) and Posnania to Poland, Sudetenland to Czechoslovakia) and the Polish corridor. Arbitration role to prevent new wars, but defeated countries and the USSR were Renunciation of colonial empire in Asia, the Pacific, Africa excluded and the USA were not part of it even if it was Wilson’s idea. Heavy military clauses, reduction of the army. ➔ Colonial countries were not recognised as having the right to Heavy economic clauses, compensation of 132 billion gold marks self-determination 33 34 CONSEQUENCES OF WW1 End of an era, it is the end of the ”long 19th century” which was considered a peaceful period. Plus it signifies the end of the ancien regime and advent of the mass society which coincides with the dismantling of empires. Impulse to the liberation movements of colonial peoples Affirmation of the United States as a world power Civil unrest and revolution breaking out In the face of Germany's imminent defeat in World War I and the abdication of William II, 1918. CULT OF THE FALLEN → Never before losses on such a scale. In the immediate post-war years more than 74,000 local war memorials of various types were created. At a national level, the Cenotaph and Tomb of the Unknown Warrior were designed to honor all the dead, including the tens of thousands whose bodies were never found. FORCED MIGRATIONS AND REFUGEES→people forced to leave their houses by others or by the conditions in which they were living after the war. - By the mid-1920s, probably no fewer than 9.5 million people in Europe had been re-settled, deported, compelled to flee or expelled from their homes in order to place them on the “right” side of the borders. - It happened mostly because of the BORDER CHANGES, many people had found themselves under a new state of another nationality or with the example of Yugoslavia, lived now with other nationalities which are completely different from them. 35 36  THE CRISIS OF 1929 The Depression AFFECTED EVERY COUNTRY OF THE WORLD; the dates and magnitude of the downturn varied substantially across countries. In the USA and ITS CONSEQUENCES industrial production fell nearly 47%, GDP (=PIL) declined by 30% and unemployment reached 20% or more. AFTERMATH OF WW1: ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL POV Very difficult economic situation of the belligerent countries GREAT BRITAIN: Huge expenditure of resources by Italy, France, Germany, Great Britain Struggled with low growth and recession during most of the second half of the (from 2 to 3 times their last peacetime GDP) 1920s. The country did not slip into severe depression until early 1930; its Huge inflation due to the printing of paper money during the conflict peak-to-trough decline in industrial production was roughly one-third that of Social consequences of the inflation process: increase in the cost of living the United States. Protectionism and economic nationalism FRANCE: Difficult transition from wartime to peacetime economy Experienced a relatively short downturn in the early 1930s. The French recovery Different impact of WW1 in European countries and USA. in 1932 and 1933 was short-lived. French industrial production and prices both The 20s in the USA are remembered as an important decade in terms of growth. fell substantially between 1933 and 1936. GERMANY: THE STOCK MARKET CRASH: Economy slipped into a downturn early in 1928 and then stabilized before During the 1920s the U.S. stock market (=MERCATO AZIONARIO) underwent a turning down again in the third quarter of 1929. The decline in German industrial historic expansion. Even people of ordinary means used much of their production was roughly equal to that in the United States. disposable income or even mortgaged (=ipotecarono) their homes to buy stock. LATIN AMERICA: ➔ By the end of the decade hundreds of millions of shares were being Several countries fell into depression in late 1928 and early 1929, slightly carried on margin, meaning that their purchase price was financed with before the U.S. decline in output. Argentina and Brazil, experienced loans (=prestiti) to be repaid with profits generated from ever-increasing comparatively mild downturns. share prices (=prezzi delle azioni). JAPAN: Once prices began their inevitable decline in October 1929, millions of Experienced a mild depression, began relatively late and ended relatively early. overextended shareholders fell into a panic and rushed to liquidate their holdings, exacerbating the decline and engendering further panic. It lasted almost 10 years and it was the longest and most severe economic - Between September and November, stock prices fell 33%. downturn in modern history. The result was a profound psychological shock and a loss of confidence in the CONSEQUENCES of it were economy among both consumers and businesses. MASS UNEMPLOYMENT Consumer spending, especially on durable goods, and business BANK PANICS, DEFLATION investment were drastically curtailed INCREASING IN POVERTY AND HOMELESSNESS. Reduced industrial output MIGRATION: From rural areas to different ones looking for a new job Job losses, which further reduced spending and investment. SYMBOLS OF THE GREAT DEPRESSION: - Movies and books (the population recognized that thing but at the same THE CAUSES: time didn’t want to forget) - Decline in consumer demand - Row for bread under a billboard skipping 'world's highest standard of - financial panic living' represented in the automobile and the petit-bourgeois family - Misguided government policies that made the economy fall 37 38 TRADE UNIONS IN THE USA: NEW DEAL ACTION PLANS: AMERICAN FEDERATION OF LABOR in 1886 For the BANKING SYSTEM Roosevelt decided to strengthen the Federal Reserve INDUSTRIAL WORKERS OF THE WORLD founded in 1905 by 43 groups in (central bank), to put banks and financial firms under strict control to prevent opposition to the AFL, it is a revolutionary organization opposing to the speculation and a contribution from the federal government that guarantees for first world war small deposits. COMMITTEE OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANIZATION in 1935 From an INDUSTRIAL point of view he launched reconstruction agencies. AMERICAN FEDERATION OF LABOR AND CONGRESS OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANIZATION (AFL-CIO) created in 1955 from the union of the two About AGRICULTURE, applied measures for crop planning and subsidy plan for previous organizations, is the largest trade union center in the USA farmers. Started a TAXATION PLAN through a tax reform according to progressive THE NEW DEAL taxation (= the more you have, the more you pay) FRANKLIN DELANO ROSEVELT was a democrat who succeeded the republican Herbert Hoover in the elections of 1932. For the SOCIAL side he created public bodies for social policies In his program there was a proposal to restore the American economy and About the MONETARY AND TRADE point of view he made evaluation of the dollar and reduction of customs tariffs society prostrated by the crisis of 1929. The NEW DEAL was inspired by the Keynesian Theory which said that the salaries must keep still and the State must intervene in social matters. PILLARS OF THE NEW DEAL: 1. Revival of the economy by boosting domestic demand 2. Comprehensive social action programme to remove poverty, unemployment and raise incomes 3. Control of the banking system 4. Large industrial and financial corporations MAIN CONCRETE MEASURES: Civil Works Administration: provides subsidies for social works Work Progress Administration: public works sites to relieve unemployment Federal Emergency Administration: forestation and land protection programmes Social Security Act: creation of the welfare state (welfare state): old-age insurance and subsidies through a mixed system Emergency Banking Bill: reform of the banking system 39 40  TOTALITARIANISM CONCEPT OF FASCISMI: book of Enzo Collotti European dimension of fascist ideology CONCEPT OF TOTALITARIANISM: by the definition of Carl J. Friedrich and Introduced the concept of fascisms comparing different European Zbigniew K. Brzezinski regarding Totalitarian Dictatorship and Autocracy made regimes, Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy had many things in common. in 1956, it must include these features: 1. Presence of a charismatic dictator CONCEPT OF CORPORATISM: 2. Presence of a single mass party From the book “Corporatism and Fascism, The Corporalist Wave in Europe” 3. Presence of an absolute ideology established through centralized control Corporatism is a collectivist political ideology developed as a "Third Way" along of the media → PROPAGANDA with Christian democracy and fascism which advocates the organization of 4. Presence of a concentration of economic power in the hands of the state society by corporate groups, such as agricultural, labor, military, business, There are other features which can be found in a totalitarian state, such as: scientific, or guild associations, on the basis of their common interests. REVOLUTIONARY MILITIA PARTY ➔ It developed during the 1850s in response to the rise of classical - The militia comprised individuals who were subject to military service liberalism and Marxism, as it advocated cooperation between the classes only on a part-time/emergency/voluntary basis → CITIZEN ARMY instead of class conflict. - They used violence against opponents - FASCIST = black shirts (=camicie nere) Both as a set of institutions created by the forced integration of organized - NAZI = brown shirts (=camicie brune) interests into the state and as an organic-statist type of political representation, alternative to liberal democracy. Party assumption of EXCLUSIVE MONOPOLY OF POWER and USE OF STATE It mainly inspired the institutional crafting of dictatorships, from Benito INSTITUTIONS to implement the revolutionary project. Mussolini's Italy through Primo de Rivera in Spain and the Austria of BEING A MASS PARTY: Engelbert Dollfuss, and the new Baltic states. - NATIONAL SOCIALIST PARTY= about 8 million members Mussolini's Italy, made corporatism a universal alternative to economic - FASCIST PARTY= around 2.5 million members + collateral organization liberalism, the symbol of a 'fascist internationalism’. CONTROL AND MOBILIZATION OF SOCIETY - “Dopolavoro Fascista” in Italy and “Kraft durch Freude” in Germany - “Gioventù Italiana del Littorio” in Italy and “Hitlerjugend” in Germany. - There was complete control of each part of the society including school, private life, free-time, work… - With the propaganda, these totalitarianism could achieve the goal of controlling the minds of their citizens. 41 42  FASCIST ITALY FASCIST PROPAGANDA AND CONSENSUS: Through propaganda the Fascist