Complete Guide to Sports Training PDF

1 1 SPORTS TRAINING—DEFINITIONS, AIMS, FUNCTIONS AND CHARACTERISTICS In general the word training is commonly used term in human language but in broad sense training may be define as an organised and systematic instructional process which aim is to...

1 1 SPORTS TRAINING—DEFINITIONS, AIMS, FUNCTIONS AND CHARACTERISTICS In general the word training is commonly used term in human language but in broad sense training may be define as an organised and systematic instructional process which aim is to improve the individual's physical, psychological and intellectual performance capacity. In sports the term training is often used by the players, coaches and scientists but there are some disagreement among the coaches and scientists regarding the exact meaning of this term, because the experts those who belong to sports medicine are in the opinion that sports training is simply a doing of physical exercise, Where as some other experts understood the meaning of the word in the form of interval training, strength training, technical training and tactical training. In the light of the various concepts, meaning of the term and nature of the training, it is essential to study the some of the important definitions given by the various experts in the field of sports. DEFINITIONS OF SPORTS TRAINING AND COACHING 1. Sports training is the basic forms of preparation of sportsmen. —Matveyev 2. Sports training, based on scientific knowledge, is a pedagogical process of sports perfection through which systematic effect on psycho-physical performance ability and performance readiness aims at leading the sportsman to high and the highest performance. —Harre Complete Guide to Sports Training 2 3. Sports training is a scientifically based and pedagogically organised process through planned and systematic, effect on the performance ability and performance readiness aims at sports perfection and performance improvement as well as at the contest in sports competition. — Schnabel COACHING: - Coaching may be define as the technical skill which involve coordination of factors like time, sequence, action, movement and speed 4. Sports training is the process of preparation of sportsman based on scientific and pedagogical principles aims at improving and maintenance of higher performance capacity. AIMS OF SPORTS TRAINING The main aim of sports training is to prepare a sportsman for a highest possible performance in a main competition in a particular sport / event. Besides this following should be considered as the aims of sports training:- i. Improvement of physical fitness. ii. Acquisition of motor skills. iii. Improvement of tactical efficiency. iv. Education and improvement of mental capabilities. I- Improvement of physical fitness:- The performance in sports generally depends upon the physical fitness of a sportsman, hence the improvement of various components of physical fitness or motor abilities is the prime aim of sports Tanning. Every sports activity needs specific types of physical fitness but in this view the development of physical fitness should not be ignore because specific fitness is depends on the general fitness. II- Acquisition of motor skills: - Every sports activity needs certain movement procedure to tackle a particular task which refers to the technique when this  3 technique is learn and perfect it is called as skill. When, ever sportsmen indulge in technical training aim of which is to acquire skills of particular sports. Technique training is differ from sports to sports if we take the example of Gymnastic & Diving which requires greater amount of technical training where as track events needs very less amount of technique to be learnt. III-Improvement of tactical efficiency: - Tactical training in sports competition helps the sportsmen in such a way where he/she makes the best use of his abilities, skills and all external factors which are beneficial to attain high level of performance and hinder the opponent to do so. Tactical training includes knowledge of rules, tactical abilities and technical training, therefore improvement of tactical efficiency is considered to be the important aim of sports training. IV- Education and improvement of mental capabilities: - Performance in any sport/event up to some extent depend on the personality of a sportsmen, therefore education and improvement of mental capabilities is also considered as one of the aim of sports training. Education in sports includes: -Development of positive attitude towards competition. -Dedication and devotion towards particular sports/ event. -Sincerity and honesty. -Self confidence and optimum level of aspiration and Formation of good habits. Keeping all these things in mind it is the moral duty of every physical education teacher, instructor and coach to educate the sportsmen through sports training. FUNCTIONS OF SPORTS TRAINING The performance of an individual depends upon the performance capacity of a sportsperson; this capacity is Complete Guide to Sports Training 4 complex in nature and depends upon certain factors like speed, strength, flexibility, endurance and coordinative abilities. If we take the physique into an account which is moreover genetic and it cannot be trained by means of training but other factors are trainable to some extent. To achieve these following tasks of the sports training should be considered: I-Development of Sports Personality:-Personality of sportsman is observed in the form of habit, behavior and attitude towards the requirement of training of competitive sports/events. It is quite clear that the personality is influenced in the process of tackling the task involved. Hence the personality of the sportsman can be develops through systematic & logical guidance during regular participation in sports activity. To ensure the improvement and achieve high level of performance it is worthwhile to develop the physical, mental, and social aspect of a sportsman. The sportsmen are required to develop the specific personality characteristics. The specific personality characteristics which are more suitable to attain high level of sports performance in particular sports. II- Performance Efficiency:- The rate at which performance efficiency is develops during the sports training is largely depend upon the amount of training and competition. It has the decisive bearing on the improvement of performance efficiency and performance ability. The performance efficiency is also depend on the amount of training load is given during sports training. But the quality of the way of training is organised will also be crucial for changing high load into higher performance capacity. III-Physical Training:- Physical training of sportsman is refers to the speed, strength, endurance, flexibility and coordinative ability. These qualities are performance prerequisites of any sports. Requirement of these qualities vary from sports to sports because some sports require  5 single ability whereas other requires combination of two. To improve these abilities sportsman should regular participate in general, specific and competitive sports activity demanded for a particular sports. IV- Technical Training:-Technical training enables the sportsman to make the optimum and best use of the physical abilities during the sports competition. The technical training helps to achieve the skill of particular sport which is directly related to the sports performance because higher the level of technical skill higher will be the performance. In order to acquire mastery over the skill one should regular participate in technical training because it ensures the perfection of skill which helps to attain high performance in sports competition. Technical mastery over the skill also ensures the proper application of motor abilities which reduce the efforts energy consumption during the competition. V- Tactical Training:- The use of correct tactics enables the sportsman to make the best possible use of physical and psychological capacity of sportsman. The tactical training helps in understanding the strength and weakness of the opponent's and also develop the ability to overcome these types of situations during competition. Gradually increasing of tactical efficiency helps the athlete to win the top level events in national and international competition. Keeping all these facts in mind all sort of skills and abilities should acquire during training which are normally put into practice to win any sports/events. Hence tactical training must be considered as the important part of sports training. VI- Mental Training/Intellectual Training:- Intellectual training refers to the higher demand put on the mental faculty of a sportsman. When sportsmen engage in training of competitive sports he should encouraged understanding the latest technical and tactical aspects of a game and how to develop these by modern means and methods of training. It is also desirous Complete Guide to Sports Training 6 to develop good habits, positive attitude and tactical ideas with good imagination which helps to develop the new technique and help in planning and analyzing the daily schedule. By doing so sportsman systematically develops the mental faculty which continuously, helps to improve the theoretical knowledge of sports training. Thus mental training is considered to be the important part of sports training. CHARACTERISTICS OF SPORTS TRAINING Sports’ training is not merely concerned with physical activities which involve the physical movements. The various activities like dance, play and various fields i.e. industries and factories also involve physical movements. Those activities or areas can not be considered the sports training because sports' training has some essential features which are observed in all kinds of physical culture and which are particularly more prominent in competitive Sports training. Some of the important features / characteristics which are more common are as follows:- 1) Sports training aim is to achieve high performance in a competition. 2) Sports training concerned with individual matter 3) Sports training is a planned and systematic. 4) Sports’ training is a scientific process. 5) In sports training coach has the dominating role 6) Optimum development of physical and psychological level of sportsman. 7) Sports training control’s daily schedule of a sportsman. 8) Sports training is a educational process 9) Sports’ training is a process of perfection. 10) Sports’ training is a process of development of hidden talent. 1. Sports training aim is to achieve high performance in a competition: - The important feature of sports training is to achieve the highest possible  7 performance in any of the sports competition and to maintain it for a longer period of time. The great talent of a sportsman can not longer afford to train to achieve high level of performance in various sports competition. Sports' training is not a simple play or recreational activity but it is a serious activity which helps to attain high performance in a competition. 2. Sports training concerned with individual matter: - Performance in any sports is the sum of various factor which are differ from individual to individual. If we take up the example of sprint event where as at high level of International competition, there is slight difference in cm / fraction of seconds which decides performance record, victory or defeat. For that vary reason it is necessary to identify the individual potentialities during the training because one might having the good reaction time whereas other may have good acceleration ability and loco motor speed and so on. Therefore it is an urge / need to emphasize on the individual matter during the training. 3. Sports Training is Planned and Systematic: - It has been observed that sports training is planned in the form of training plan / training cycle according to the time and duration of the competition and as per the requirement of particular sports / event. The sports training is organised on the basis of logical facts which are practically designed to improve in performance systematically. 4. Sports Training as a Scientific Process: - Now- a-days this is the era of science and technology because performance of human being are advancing due to the science and modern technology. The performance in sports is highly influenced by the scientific method of equipments, facilities and modern theories of sports training. So as to attain high level of performance in sports competition it is necessary to incorporate the science in the process of sports training. Complete Guide to Sports Training 8 (5) In Sports Training Coach has Dominating Role: - Sports training is planned, organised and evaluated by the coach/trainer / PET who controls each and every things of a sportsman. The coach is not only responsible for the coaching of the sports person but his dominant role should be understood in a broad sense. In addition to his direct role with the young sports person in sports training he should also have the close association with scientist and other person who helps in uplifting the performance of sportsman. The coach should stimulate and encouraged not only to train well the sportsperson but also to learn them all kinds of education. The dominant role of the coach should not be considered as treatment of the sportsman as children because the highest performance in a competition is depend upon the good imagination and successful participation in an event. (6) Optimum development of Physical and Psychological level of Sportsman: - To achieve the optimum Physical and psychological development of a sportsman maximum training load should be given but increase in the load should be in a way so that the sportsman adapt as per the requirements of a game/ sports. Adaptations of load by a sportsman always improve the performance most effectively. Hence the sports Training become an important part of the life of a sportsman. (7) Sports training controls daily schedule of a sportsman:- Sports training is not a fun and enjoyment which can be treated as recreational activity.To continue with a regular training with its best effect the sports training become a tough task because the sports man has to adjust his other activities as per the daily schedule of a training so that training can run smoothly once/ twice a day. When we look into its vital feature of sports training we always realize that sportsman must possess high degree of discipline, sincerity and honesty as these  9 are the qualities of a champion sportsman’s. (8) Sports training is a educational process:- As it is quite clear that Sports Training is a educational and pedagogical process which helps to develop the over all personality of a sportsman without developing the personality the higher performance is impossible or in other words development of the sports personality is directly proportional to the performance improvement of the sportsman through Sports training. (9) Sports Training is a process of Perfection:- It is well known fact that sports training is planned, systematic and scientific process of preparation of sportsman for higher performance. To achieve the aims of Sports training various means and methods are applied. These means and methods are flexible in nature which can be modified improved and new methods are developed with the help of various sports sciences. The process of observation, conducting experiment, analyzing data and discovering new thought is an important characteristic of sports training in modern time. Hence the sports' training is a continuous process of perfection and improvement of sports performance. (10) Sports Training is a Process of Development of Hidden Talent:- Sports training is a goal oriented process by preparing a sportsman for the higher performance as the need and requirement of the competition. The regulation of training helps the coaches to assess the performance of the player at any moment. For effective regulation of training few points should be kept in mind: i- Training plan should include aim, sub aim, load, means and methods. ii- Training documents should be maintained. iii- Information regarding level of competition and rate of improvement. Complete Guide to Sports Training 10 2 PRINCIPLES AND MEANS OF SPORTS TRAINING PRINCIPLES OF SPORTS TRAINING 1. Principle of Continuity of Training: - The principle of continuity of training state that training of the sportsman should be continuous and regular process. It is the establish fact that regular Training of a sportsman always leads to the better result. Hence too long break / interval in the training should be avoided. To ensure this principle of training following points should be taken into an account. I. Sportsman should be educated regarding the importance of continuity by highlighting the positive and negative effect of training. II. The knowledge of the sportsman should be extended by convincing them that all the performance factors are developed through the long process of training. III. Condition of optimum load should be created because too long and too short volume of regular training does not effect positively on the performance. IV. In case of sick injured person the physician should always be consulted because in case of injury some part of the body can be given exercise or low intensity training load may be given. 2. Principle of Increasing of Training Load:- This principle of training load derived from the well established fact which exhibit the clear cut relationship between the load and adaptation process. In this principle coach or physical Education teacher must continuously plan for new and higher demand among the sportsperson so that training load can be increase to get the maximum possible  11 benefit of the sports training. Generally two methods: linear and step methods are used to increase the load but in special situation combination of both linear and step method may also be used to progress the load during training. 3. Principle of Individual Matter: - It is established facts that two like are not alike. In sports training all the sportsman taking part in the training are differ in the training age, health condition, individual capacity to bear load, recovery pace, body constitutions and so many other factors. Keeping all these factors in mind training must be formulated as per the need of an individual consideration. 4. Principle of Active Participation: - It is the fact principle of psychology that you can bring the horse into the water but you can not compel the horse to drink water. On the basis of similar principle a player who is passively engage in training does not analyze and evaluate thoroughly always remain looser because such prayer totally depend upon the coach who never develop confidence and does not improve the capacity to improve the performance. Therefore the coach must educate their player to activity and consciously participate in sports activity during training. 5. Principle of Planned & Systematic Training: - It is the establish fact that sports training is a scientific and pedagogical process. Therefore to achieve the high level of sports performance in a competition, the training must be plan in a proper system. These two principles are interrelated with each other because a correct planning is only made if we know the proper system of Sports training. In other word training is the goal oriented process hence training should be arrange in such a way so that the main aim of sports Training is achieved and performance can be improve and maintain for the long period of time. The important aspect of systematic training refers to the correct and sequential arrangements of all Complete Guide to Sports Training 12 training components. This will not only improve the performance but also stabilize the previous performance and create the base for future performance. For the proper planning and systematic training following points should be kept in mind for the sequential arrangements I. General preparation II. Specific preparation III. Effective competitive exercises IV. Tactical training V. Technical training 6. Principle of General and Specific Training:- General and specific training of a sportsman is equally important because general training create the base and specific training help to improve the performance. As we all know that better is the base, the better will be the performance. General and specific training can not be separated but it is always advisable that both general and specific training should be given to a sportsman. 7. Principle of Competitive & Specialised Training: - The specialised training refers to the use of specific means and methods for the improvement of particular sports performance in a competition. It is scientific fact that specialize training with the help of specific means and methods lead to better performance but in true sense when the training starts in the childhood and continue up to the age of 25 years or even more then the specialised training does not effect much towards positive side but some time it also effect the negatively because of the following. I. Specialised training is not suitable for children. II. High performance is achieved early and it is difficult to maintain for long time. III. High performance is achieved before the start of high performance age. IV. High performance depend upon the total  13 personality of sportsman specialised training always leads to the improvement of selected systems & organs of the body which some time result the inadequate of other systems. 8. Principle of Clarity:- To provide the maximum possible benefit of sports training to a sportsman for the effective training the clear picture of technique and tactics and other aspects of performance enhancement should be given. For the implementation of this fact following points should be kept in mind: (i) Language must be clear & correct. (ii) Teaching aids like black board, photo, illustration, video film graph, etc should be used. (iii) Various sense organs should be stressed e.g. (drum beating) (iv) Constantly informed the quality of movement. (v) Information should be given as per age, sex and experience. 9. Principle of Cyclicity: - The training plan is formulated as per the availability of time for training. The training can be plan in three different forms of cycles: I. Macro Cycle: duration 3 - 12 months. II. Meso cycle : duration 3 - 6 week or it is called as monthly cycle. III. Micro cycle: duration 5 - 10 days also called as weekly plan. 10. Principle of Ensuring Results: - The main aim of sports training is to achieve the highest possible performance in a competition. In this regard training should be formulated in such a way so that ultimate aim of sport s training is ensured by attaining the result in a competition. 11. Principle of Critical Training Load:- To meet Complete Guide to Sports Training 14 the higher demand of competition in unforeseen situation the training load should be administered more then the general load. This administered of critical load should b e given 4-5 times in a year. 12. Principle of Adaptability:- For the effective use of training the adaptation process should take place. To ensure the adaptability the training load should be followed by a measured period of the recovery. The optimum adaptation is possible when there is proper proportion between the load and recovery. 13. Principle of Uniformity & Differentiation:- To achieve the best possible result the training should be formulated uniformly but allowing the individual difference. The uniformly also mean the similar principle of training like time and duration of the activity. Similarly the load may vary as per the capacity of an individual. 14. Principle of Awareness:- The sportsman should educate in such a way so that they can aware about the importance of training and competition demand from time to time. The sportsman should also aware by creativity so that they can actively participate in the training. 15. Principle of Visual Presentation:- Visual presentation in the training mean that one should present the total task in brief so that every player become familiar / aware about the demand made on them. In this principle of sports training. Sportsmen are taught to observe/watch carefully so that they can make maximum use of their sense organs. The main aim of visual presentation/ demonstration to improve the observation power of the sportsman which helps in skill learning. Following points are to be considered in visual presentation: i. Correct mental picture of movement sequence is to be given. ii. Information should be provided through visual aids.  15 iii. Different kinds of aids should be used. iv. Selection of aids should be done on the basis of functions, aims and features of training task. v. Visual aids may also be used for teaching purpose. 16. Principle of Feasibility:- This principle is based on the fact that man develops from being active and that development is released by performance. According to this principle training of the sportsman should be done in optimum form so that maximum benefit of training can be taken. Too little and too much training should be avoided. For the effective use of this principle following points should be kept in mind: i- Observe the needs of sportsman. ii- Create the demand among sportsman individually and develop the bearing capacity. iii-Consider the age and sex of sports man. 17. Principle of Regulation of Training:- Sports training is a goal oriented process by preparing sportsman for the higher performance as per the need and requirement of the competition. The regulatory process of training helps the coaches to assess the performance of the player at any moment. For effective regulation of training few points should be kept in mind: i. Training plan should include aim, sub aim, load, means and methods etc. ii. Training document should maintain. iii. Information regarding level of competition and rate of improvement. TRAINING MEANS The main aim of training is to achieve the high sports performance, this high sports performance can only be achieve if the training is done in the scientific and systematic manner. During sports training any object, Complete Guide to Sports Training 16 method or procedure which helps to improve and maintain the performance is called as training means. Similarly any material or immaterial object which helps to achieve the objectives of the sports training is also called as training means. There are various means and methods of training but for better understanding of students/sportsman, teacher/coaches and scientists the training means are classified into two main parts:- 1. PRINCIPAL MEANS:- Training means are the important means among all the means for the improvement, maintenance and faster recovery. During sports training the training session should begin carefully so that all the factors of training can be arrange in a systematic and scientific manner. This act of training will helps to ensure the best possible performance. Warming Up: - For the effective training warming up is the important aspect which not only raises the temperature of the muscle but also minimizes the possibility of the injury. Arrangement of Exercises: - The proper sequential arrangement of the physical exercises is the first and foremost principle which helps to attain the highest performance and quick recovery from fatigue after training. Exercises are generally classified into three main parts:- I-Gen exercises: - These types of exercises are taken from other sports in general which do not have any relationship with the movement of any kind of competitive sports. Generally these exercise helps in all kind of sports movement which are not performed with the help of any kind of element or apparatus. II- Specific exercises:- Specific exercises are of two types I type of exercises are related to the sequence of movement of competitive exercise but this type of exercises deviate from the characteristics of training load.  17 To improve the performance load should be repeated more than the demand. II types of exercises are partial related to the sequence of movements, but they are specifically concerned with the particular event or an individual. These exercises also activated the various muscle in the same manner as desired for particular competitive event. III-Competitive exercises:- Competitive exercises may be define as the form of movement which are in the sequence of movements and its typical features, corresponds broadly with the demand of specific competitive event. Limbering down exercises: - Each training session should be followed by limbering down / cool down exercises should be done for 10 - 15 minutes. - Low pace exercises: - First of all low pace/ low intensity exercises should be done continuously so as to bring the organism/body to the normal functioning. - Flexibility & Stretching exercises: - Low pace exercise should be followed by the flexibility & stretching exercise which not only reduce the possibility of fatigue but also helps to remove the metabolic products from the blood cells. 2. ADDITIONAL MEANS i. Educational means: During training session the task is to be demonstrate, explain, observe, verbal discussion and some sort of lecture may be delivered. These means will helps the player to gain knowledge about the task, make the movement concept clear this act will not only develop the mental abilities but also motivate the sportsman by creating interest for active participation. ii. Health & Nutritional means : During and after the training for the improvement and maintenance of health and fitness proper balance diet is to be taken, during training liquid diet rich in minerals and after training session carbohydrate rich diet should be provided to the sportsman. Complete Guide to Sports Training 18 iii. Physiotherapeutic means: Physio-therapeutic means in the form of massage, ultrasound, sauna bath, cryotherapy and electrotherapy may be used so as to relaxation of body, prevention and rehabilitation of injuries and quick recovery from fatigue. iv. Psychological means: In training of a sportsman psychology plays an important role in the enhancement of sports performance. Physiological research indicates that the nervous system is responsible for the recovery process and this nervous system is control and regulated by so many psychological factors. Keeping in view the fact psychological means like mental training, autogenic training, auto suggestion, ideo motor training and psycho tonic training means may be used so as to remove the fear, relaxation, develop the confidence and psychological preparation of the athlete/ sportsman. v. Biomechanical means: There are various biomechanical means in the literature but cinematography is an important mean which not only helps in the assessment of technical training but also provide the feedback regarding the other biomechanical aspect of training. vi. Natural means: In the training of a sportsman the natural means like weather condition, light, air, water and altitude indirectly affect the performance of the sportsman. Keeping in view the venue of the competition, day and time of the competitive event training of the athlete may be done under the ideal natural condition so that the sportsman get familiar with all possible circumstances. vii. Material object means: In sports training material object means like training equipment, apparatus and audiovisual aids may be used as important means so that movement concept become clear, provide feedback to the sportsman and helps to motivate the sportsman to improve their technical and tactical efficiency.  19 3 TRANSFER THE TRAINING In the field of learning, transfer of training is a topic or area having a wide range. This concept is very important or significant in the field of physical education. A player can learn new skill with greater ease and less difficulty if learning from any previously learned skill is being transferred to the new learning process. With this, learning experience of one gets consolidated. CONCEPT OF TRANSFER OF TRAINING In the field of education, concept of transfer of training is not a new one. It is being used in all kinds of learning and it plays important role in different learning processes as it always takes place within the context of what is learned previously. What is being learned at one stage facilitate progress at the next stage. It is through the result of transfer that familiar learning curve takes place. Learning received in one situation influences the learning acquired in another situation because learning acquired in one situation gets being transferred to the other situation. When the training conditions of two tasks are highly similar, the degree of transfer is greater. Some skills are familiar to each other, because of which they should be taught if not simultaneously, but just after each-other. When learning got during one stage is being transferred to the learning being taking place on next stage, it is known as the transfer of training. The basic principle on which the process of transfer of training is based is that skill learned in one situation can be used or utilised in another situation. There is hardly any skill in which no experience from past learning is being used. The process of transfer is being affected by the amount of practice on the original Complete Guide to Sports Training 20 activity. Under this process, what is learnt with respect of one task is being transferred to the learning of another task, which is being learnt in the future. If during the early part of a series of related tasks, greater effort is being extended, then the transfer will take place in large amount. Acquisition of the subsequent skill will be affected to a lot of extent by the knowledge and understanding of the fundamental principles of previous skill. There are some principles which are common to both the skills, i.e., that is learnt earlier and which is being learnt in the future, and one should understand the common principles, which will help in transferring the training or knowledge of one skill to another properly. Coach or teacher should teach the skills having some common features in such a sequence that players can retain some points of skill from which training is to be transferred. If the direct practice is readily available, one should not rely on the transfer of training. Process of transfer of training should be used at the next level properly if direct practice is not possible. Where learning a large number of practical situations require a lot of material or time, the transfer of training is of great help and benefit. Thus, transfer of training is a very systematic process which should be done with utmost cautious and care. Teacher should have knowledge of how to manage this process. Defining the Concept of Transfer of Training Various experts have defined the concept of transfer of training in various ways, some of which are as follows:— In the words of McGeogh and Irion this process takes place whenever the existence of a previously established habit influence the performance of another habit. According to Cratty, the effect which is being produced with the practice of one task upon the performance of another task is known as transfer of training.  21 Crow and Crow has defined the concept of transfer of training as carry-over of habits of thinking, feeling or working from one learning area to another. KINDS OF TRANSFER OF TRAINING There are no certainty of the fact that transfer of training will take place in all the training programmes. When and how this process will take place, it is also even not certain. There are three categories into which transfer of training can be classified, which are discussed as follows :— a. Positive Transfer of Training : In this kind of transfer of training, the learning of a previous skill helps in acquiring the other skill. Thus, benefits of earlier learning can be utilised on the acquisition of other skills. This kind of transfer take place on in those situations in which there are some common features of characteristics in two skills. How much similarity is being found is the factor which determines the quantity in which transfer will take place. For this, it is necessary that the player should keep in his mind the main points of the previously learned skill. b. Negative Transfer of Training : If the acquisition of particular skill interferes with the learning of subsequent skill, it is known as negative transfer of training. This kind of situation takes place when learner is to make a new response to an old stimulus. Thus, if the previously acquired skill hamper the process of acquisition of new skill, it is known as the negative transfer of training. c. Zero or No Transfer of Training : As the name suggests, in this kind of process, no part of previously learned skill is being get transferred to the process of learning the new skill. Thus, there will be neither positive transfer nor the negative one. This kind of situation takes place when the skills are totally un-related to each other. Thus, we can say that generally in the learning Complete Guide to Sports Training 22 process, transfer of training takes place in some extent. Sometimes, it can be positive, sometimes, negative and sometimes zero transfer. VARIOUS FACTORS AFFECTING TRANSFER OF TRAINING There are various factors which affect the process of transfer of training, some of which are as follows :— i. If there are any kind of similarities between the skills taught and which are going to be taught, transfer of training can take place. Thus, it is the nature or the kind of skill which plays an important role in determining the fact that whether the process of transfer of training will take place or not. ii. Students can differentiate between the fundamental elements if they are being labelled by the teacher as they can remain stick to the mind of the players or the students for a longer period of time. With this mental activity, analytical capacity of the students and their power to concentrate will increase considerably. iii. Process of transfer of training will be determined by the fact whether the students to whom skills are being taught are capable of keeping the things stored in their mind or not. In other words, it is the intelligence level of the students which play an important role in determining the extent to which transfer of training can take place. Only those students can perform this function who have the ability to keep in their mind all the skills taught earlier. Intelligent students, who possess this quality can easily formulate generate principles which help them in performing this process. iv. Process of transfer is being affected to a lot of extent by the mental set-up, ideals and the purposes of the students or players. More transfer will take place only in that situation if a player learns or practice a skill with a great interest and enthusiasm. If player does not have any interest in practising the skill, this process will not  23 take place successfully. DIFFERENT THEORIES OF TRANSFER OF TRAINING Various studies have been conducted to find out the mechanism or the means through which process of transfer of training takes place. To explain its mechanism, various theories have been put forward by the experts, some of which are as follows :— a. According to Thorndike and some other experts, transfer of training takes place when some kind of similarities are being found in the skills. If the fundamental objective of various activity is same, one can think of transfer of training. When the conditions or the requirements are almost identical, this process can take place. Transfer of training has an important place in the field of physical education. Experts have suggested to establish the specific habits and training in particular skills which are useful in carrying out desirable behaviour. Thus, this theory suggests that transfer of training takes place when the some tendencies or the behaviour units are identical or common to earlier taught skill and the skill to be taught. b. Some experts have propounded the theory of formal mental discipline. This doctrine is based on the idea that there are certain mental activities which exercises the mind and as a result of these exercises, general mental agility produces. For producing maximum amount of exercise, difficult exercises should be undertaken. However, this theory or the view is not supported by the experts of modern times. c. W.C. Baglay provided the theory of ideals, in which he stated that transfer of training takes place in form of ideals. If the conclusions are being drawn from previous experience are imbibed as ideals of some importance, they can be transferred to the other situations as well. In the field of sports and games, when a player learns to obey different rules, he imbibes the importance of fair Complete Guide to Sports Training 24 play and sportsmanship, and he apply these qualities on the playing ground and also in his general life. d. Charles H. Judd has propounded the theory of generalisation according to which, when an individual learn something, he tend to make certain conclusions or generalisations. In the subsequent situations, these generalisations affect the process to some extent. It is the on the child’s individual discovery of the solution that the transfer of training depends. Teacher should encourage the players to make generalisation from the teaching on their own. It is by the generalisation that students can solve various kinds of problems. e. According to theory of faculty, human mind is comprised of various faculties which are independent in nature. Each faculty consists of various activities within it. It is only within a particular faculty that the transfer of training can take place. However, later it was said by the experts that transfer of training cannot take place in the absence of common faculty. f. Spearman put forth the theory of two factor, in which he stated that all the human beings consist of certain qualities, some of which are general while some are specific in nature. General abilities were termed by him as g-factor, while specific abilities as s-factor. In the activities of general nature transfer of training can take place to more extent, while rate of this process in the case of s-factor is less, the reason being that g-factor are common among various activities while s-factors are specific to certain activities only. Thus, experts have tried a lot to find out the mechanism which facilitate the transfer of training. All the theories are complementary to each other and not contrary. No teacher should try to make this process applicable forcefully in the training programme. Only that part of the skill should be transferred which can actually be transferred, otherwise, objectives of the training cannot be obtained successfully.  25 4 TRAINING PLANNING MEANING In sports attainment of the high performance is largely depend upon the systematic and scientific approach of training therefore planning finds its important place in sports training. Before organising any activity one has to plan well in advance. The process of sports training helps to develop personality and performance of a sportsman. Planning ensure development in the sports performance therefore it continues for so many years, months, days and even training session too. Planning of any event largely depend upon the nature of the competition in which sportsman has to participate. Definition:- Planning is an important method to ensure continuous development of personality and sports performance which enable the sportsman to achieve best performance in the training age of high performance. Principles of Planning:- Planning is the complex scientific process. The effect of the planning depends upon the so many factors. The principles of planning are discussed in detail for the better understanding of coach, trainer and physical education teacher. 1. Planning should be based on the progressed sports performance:- Basically training is planned in such a way so that best performance can be achieved in future. In other words all kinds of training plan directly or indirectly based on the structure of future performance. 2. Planning should be aimed at personality & performance development: - Training is an educational process as it aims at personality and performance development of the sportsman. So it is essential to plan Complete Guide to Sports Training 26 because without the required attitude, interest, mental capabilities, personality traits, proper habits etc. sportsman cannot be trained effectively for a long period. 3. Planning should be based on the scientific knowledge & experience: - Training is highly scientific procedure as it is a competition oriented process. The scientific method helps the sportsman in much quicker and effective improvement. For the qualitative and quantitative improvement coach should know the means and methods which are used by the successful sportsman and latest knowledge about the following: i- Training methodology ii- Growth and development iii- Principles and laws of systematic development 4. Planning must ensure harmony among various training plans :- In specific training various types of plans are needed for e.g. Short term & long term plan, individual & group plan. The aim of this plan is in harmony with each other. The short term & long term plan must fit into the long term plan. Individual & groups plans must supplement each other to ensure proper development of an individual & a group. 5. Planning is a continuous process: - Planning is not static it is dynamic process. It can be modified according to the effects & changes in the personality & performance caused by training & other factor. Time to time the planning process may be evaluated. 6. Planning should be based on factors determining performance: - The aim & content of planning must be determined after a careful observation. Plan must include all the factor i.e. time, status, diet, family routine etc. During plan all important factors which have a direct or indirect effect should be carefully considered. 7. Planning must be pragmatic & concrete: - It  27 should be based on verifying fact, scientific knowledge & should not take the form of wild imagination. Whatever is planned must be based on the load tolerance ability otherwise it leads to accumulation of fatigue and overloads. TYPES OF TRAINING PLANS Training plan can be classified according to the duration and according to the number of person involved in the training. According to the duration the training plan of following types: (i) Training conception 2. Yearly plan 3. Meso-cycle plan 4. Micro - cycle plan 5. Training session plan (i) Training Conception: As it is clear by the name it self in real sense it is not a plan but a concept for planning and carrying out of training process for a long period. It involves principles and fundamental rules for the formulation of training. Ø Training plan normally prepared by concerned federation Ø It is prepared for different level and class of sportsmen. Ø It is prepared on the basis of analysis Ø It is also prepared on the basis of international trend. Ø It form the basis of all kinds of training plans which can be further classified into three: Training conception for complete duration. Training conception for different stages. Training conception for a training cycle longer than Complete Guide to Sports Training 28 a year i.e. Olympic plan. (ii) Yearly Plan: These plans are made for the effective formulation and proper implementation of training for the period of one year. The yearly plan is a kind of document in which training details are laid down clearly and precisely. The yearly training document generally contains the following: Ø Time available for training. Ø Level of sportsmen. Ø Analysis of present state of sportsmen. Ø Goal and Sub goal. Ø Performance factor to be achieved. Ø Information about the training contents. Ø Sequence of training. Ø Arrangement of Meso cycles. Ø Date of competition. Ø Other relevant information. (iii) Meso-cycle plan: These plans are perhaps the important plan because in these plans are formulated for the sufficient duration i.e. 3-6 week duration, hence it helps to check the adaptation process caused by training. Meso plan is the important tool for the control and regulation of sports training. Each Meso cycle has its set aims and objectives which are to be achieved by proper formulation and arrangement of micro cycles. These plans are more specific and detailed in comparison to yearly plan. Meso plan is also called as operative plan. After each Meso cycle some sort of test or competition are to be conducted so as to check whether the desire objectives have been achieved or not. If the aims and objectives are not achieved then the training plan for subsequent Meso cycle has to be changed or readjusted. (iv) Micro - cycle plan: Micro cycle is the short term  29 plan which form the basis for Meso cycle. Due to short duration of micro cycle desired objectives can be achieved by systematic arranging the load of a sportsman in number of micro cycles and as a result of which adaptation can be achieved in Meso cycle. In micro cycle plan number of training session are planed with contents in detail. On the basis of this training is carried out in each training session. The planning of micro cycle depends upon several factors such as training state, Meso cycle, nature of sports etc. In planning for micro cycle normally following rules are followed: 1. The degree of load should vary within the micro cycle. 2. The aim and contents of load should vary within the micro cycle but it should ensure optimum load for the development of one or two factors. 3. The aim contents and load in a micro cycle must correspond to the aims and contents of Meso cycle in which it falls. 4. In micro cycle having very high load should provide one or two training sessions for active recovery. 5. In competition period the micro cycle are generally formulated in such a manner that there is no carry over of fatigue from one micro cycle to the next micro cycle. 6. The micro cycle immediately before start of important competition should be formulated in such a manner that the sportsman is able to participate in the competition in a state of super compensation. (v) Training session plan: Training session plan is the basic unit of training process. The actual process of training is realized in a training session. Keeping in mind the importance of training session it will be discussed separately. Complete Guide to Sports Training 30 Training plan is also divided into individual and group plan: * Individual Plan:- Individual plan are more common in individual sports. These plans are necessary to ensure optimum development of sportsman as in individual plan the individual factors form the basis of planning. * Group Plan:- The group plan are most often used in team games. In the initial stage of training group training plans are generally used to ensure uniform type of training facilitating training of large number of sportsman.  31 5 TRAINING LOAD AND ADAPTATION PROCESS TRAINING LOAD In sports training load is a central concern / phase through which performance of a sportsman is improved. Every sports training consist of physical exercises / movements which causes fatigue. Fatigue is directly a product of training load which helps in the process of adaptation. Therefore training load and fatigue are important for any kind of sports performance. If load remain constant then there will be stagnation in the performance. Training load helps to stimulate the various organs of a body which helps to adapt these by giving proper shape to the body parts so that the maximum possible work can be done in a minimum effort. If we seriously look into the matter the word load has not been properly define in the sports sciences. The concept of the term load has been borrowed / derived on the basis of stress in the medical science. It is again question of discussion whether the load is equal to the stress or not, It is quite clear that load is always good for the health whereas stress has its negative effect on the body. DEFINITIONS OF LOAD 1. Amount of work done by an individual body is called as load. 2. Load is the psychological and physiological demand put on the organism through motor stimuli resulting in improvement and maintenance of higher performance capacity. * What is Demand: In sports training and competition demand may be represent as the act of doing physical exercise / movement. The amount of work required for Complete Guide to Sports Training 32 these demands is the product of load factor or components such as quality of movements, types of exercise, load volume and load intensity. TYPES OF LOAD As per the demand of training and competition and as a result of it the rate at which disturbance take place in physiological functions of the body, the load is mainly divided into two parts: 1. External load 2. Internal load. FACTORS OF TRAINING LOAD Load factors also called as features of load or in other words the component of load which all together are included in training load are called as factors of load. The important factors of load are: I. Movement Quality:-The quality of movement is the subjective factor which cannot be measure properly and precisely. When the correct movements are performed by a sportsman it directly affects the training load. For any kind of technical and tactical process of perfection movement quality become important aspect of training load. By increasing the degree of difficulty of movement training load may be increase gradually. II. Types of Exercise:-Each and every training load consists of physical exercises/ movements. These exercises have different effect on the performance of an individual as per the nature and demand required by a particular game/ sport. According to the effect, the exercises are classified into three parts : (i) General exercises (ii) Specific exercises (iii)Competitive exercises These exercises are important means of the  33 training. Every exercise depends upon the body part which involve in a particular movement. Similarly the type of coordination required and the way in which load is given so that it may have different effect on the performance ability of a sportsman. III. Load Intensity: - The intensity is represented in degree or rate at which work is done in relation to the time. Load intensity is further divided into two parts: A. Intensity of Stimulus- intensity of stimulus refers to the pace of doing work or pace of doing one single movement. For example: Speed of 100 meter sprint in mt./ sec. B. Density of Stimulus- Density of the stimulus may be define as the ratio between the load and recovery or it may be understood as the pause / rest between the two motor movement or set of movement. For example: Rest period between the two sprint of 100 meter. IV. Load Volume: - The load volume may be defined as total work done in one training session. The load volume is also divided into two parts : A. Duration of Stimulus- It may be expressed in time/ distance in a single stimulus and set of stimuli. For example: total time take in 100 mt. sprint/ distance of one repetition. B. Frequency of Stimulus- frequency of stimulus may be define as the number of repetitions in one set of exercises. For example: In practice of 100 meter sprint 10 times in which 10 will be the frequency of stimulus / movement. PRINCIPLES OF TRAINING LOAD 1. Principle of continuity and long term: The load Complete Guide to Sports Training 34 should be continuously means there should not be any break in the training. The load given to a sportsman should be followed for a long period of time which keeps the body to maximum adaptation. 2. Principle of progression of load: Same kind of load for a long period does not effect much hence the progression of load is necessary load may be progress in linear / step form method. Frequency Ist improve volume Duration Density IIndIntensity Intensity proper 3. Principle of Variation increase load -Linear increase of load may be assess/ measure in every training session which is applicable to beginners. -Step method is maintain for long period after proper adaptation process it increased further which is applicable to advance athlete/ sportsman. 4. Principle of load and adaptation: Load should be increase after attainment of phase of super compensation. 5. Load should be optimum as per the individual capacity: optimum load should be given as per the individual capacity of a sportsman. 6. Proper and sufficient rest between two training session: Proper proportion between load and recovery should be maintain so as to get the maximum benefit of adaptation process. 7. Principle of general and specific load: Among  35 beginners one kind of load improves so many factors where as in case of advance athlete same kind of load develops only one factor. Hence specific load should be given to improve the performance of desired event. For e. g. 100 mt. sprint. 8. Principle of proper ratio between intensity and volume: If intensity is high volume should be low and vice versa. 9. Load should be administered by training cycles: The administration of load should be done according to the training cycles so as to get the maximum benefit of adaptation in main competition. JUDGEMENT OF TRAINING LOAD (Objective and Subjective Means) Training is the indispensable means of performance improvement. The quantum of load has to be optimum to get the best possible results therefore the training should be plan regulated and evaluated from time to time. This is possible only when we can measure the load. Unfortunately there is no such precise/accurate/ reliable method to measure the load. The administration of training load is also vary from according to the training age of a sportsman. In this regard for beginners training load may be given once in a day where as in case of advance players load should be given twice a day. However with the help of psychological and medical science some objective and subjective means have been derived which are commonly used by the coaches and training expert for judging the training load. 1. Objective Means: In this method generally we assess the physiological and biochemical changes during the training and just after the training session. To judge the training load of a sportsman following objective means may be used: i. Heart rate Complete Guide to Sports Training 36 ii. Body weight iii. Intensity of load iv. Volume of load v. Oxygen consumption vi. Lactic acid concentration vii. Blood urea concentration viii. Other biochemical changes in the body 2. Subjective Means: The subjective means to judge the training load need to have specific equipment and expert in the field. This is not easy but cost by too. Hence the coach and expert largely depend upon the subjective method to assess the training load. In this method the judgment of training load is done by assessing/judging the external symptoms of a sportsman. In this method to assess the training load one should be well aware of the following factors:- i. Behaviour of a player ii. Face reading of sportsman iii. Movement of a player iv. Colour of the skin v. Increase quantity of sweat vi. Error committed by a player in performing technique vii. Increase respiratory rate viii. Feeling pain in the muscle ix. Features of face x. By seeing the performance action xi. Body movement xii. General experience of coach MEANING OF OVER LOAD During training of a sportsman load is given to the players as per their capacity when ever this load goes beyond the capacity of an individual the physiological and psychological function of the sportsman get disturb. This load does not effect immediate if the administration of the overload continue for a longer period it leads/causes  37 decrease in the performance capacity of an individual. In general all the physical activity are performed by the muscular system as per the metabolic efficiency of the body. This muscular system and metabolic system largely depend or control by the nervous system of the body. When the nervous system disturb the whole system of the body get disturb which also causes the decrease in capacity to perform any physical task. It happen in the past that over load adversely effect the achievement of the training but in modern trend sports scientist are in the opinion that over load occur due to the so many reason. If symptoms of the over load are diagnose and causes are identified then the over load may be avoided or it may be completely eliminated from the training of a sportsman. CAUSES OF OVER LOAD Over load occurs due to the so many reasons but some of the important causes of overload are as follows:- 1. Improper use of training method:- During training of a sportsman if the training method is not used properly or there is error or fault in the training method it may lead to an over load. It may be understood in the following ways: i. Immediate increase of training load does nod lead to any adaptation which causes over load. ii. If the recovery is ignored in relation to training load it may cause over load. iii. If proper proportion between intensity & volume is not maintained then it may lead to over load. iv. High intensity in endurance event training may cause over load. v. High volume in sprinting event will also lead to over load. vi. Participation in too many competitions may also cause over load. vii. Ignorance of other training means may also cause Complete Guide to Sports Training 38 over load. 2. Life Style of a Player:For any kind of high class performance high degree of discipline is expected by the sportsman failing which condition of over load may occurs. Following points in relation to life style of a sportsman may be understood as the causes of over load: i. Improper rest or sleep may cause overload. ii. Not taking meal in the time may also cause overload. iii. Use of alcohol, nicotine tobacco may also lead to overload. iv. Dirty dress, unhygienic living condition may also cause overload. v. Aggressive and derogative attitude may also cause overload. vi. Engagement in unwanted / dirty activities in free time also causes over load. 3. Socio-Environmental Causes:Every individual or sportsman lives in the society and he/she has to adjust in the society according to the socio environmental condition. When an individual engage in sports training he may lead to over load because of the so many reasons- i. Family tension ii. Too much engagement in family work iii. Lack of family support iv. Lack of coordination with subordinates v. Mental load due to the study vi. Poor result of the examination vii. Too much engagement in entertainment viii. Negative attitude of society towards sports 4. Health Related Causes: Health of an individual is the main factor which contributes lot to the sports performance. If any of the health factor lack during the training it may cause over load:- i. Cough and cold ii. Any kind of fever  39 iii. Disturbance in digestive system iv. Any kind of injury v. Infection SYMPTOMS OF OVER LOAD The various symptoms to identify the over load may be understood in the following ways:- 1. Changes in psychic behaviour of a sportsman i. Over excited ii. Doubt in mind iii. Attitude towards criticism iv. Loss faith in coach v. Loss of motivation vi. Loss of confidence vii. Feeling of depression viii. Depression ix. Indifferent behaviour x. Uneasiness 2. Performance Symptoms: i. Decrease in coordinative efficiency ii. Tension in movement pattern iii. Poor movement flow iv. Chances of injury v. Concentration ability decreases vi. Recovery period is delayed vii. Competitive fear viii. Loose temper immediately ix. Forget team tactics and strategy x. Chances of error increase xi. Surrender in tough competition especially at the end of event xii. Decrease efficiency of readiness 3. Somatic functional symptoms i. Loss of sleep. ii. Loss of appetite. iii. Decrease in body weight. iv. Digestive system disturb. Complete Guide to Sports Training 40 v. Vital capacity decreases. vi. Recovery rate decrease. vii. Chances of injury and infection. TACKLING OF OVER LOAD Tackling of over load is a serious problem especially when the over load reaches to the advance stage it become very difficult task to manage. During training coach is the central concern hence he / she needs to work with a team of sportsman, doctors, psychologist even than if at all it required he should take family members in confidence. While organising the process of tackling the over load following measures can be taken into an account:- 1. Training Measures i. Recognize the causes as earliest as possible ii. Remove the causes of over load. iii. Modify the training. iv. If necessary re plan the training. v. Avoid trials /competition. vi. Complete rest is not advisable. vii. Again start training when symptoms of over load seems to decrease. viii. Intensity of load should be increase first. ix. Load volume should be increase carefully. 2. Nutritional Measures i. To increase appetite food like milk vegetable and fruits may be given. ii. Decrease the quantity of protein in food. iii. No tea, coffee and cigarettes should be provided to the sportsman. iv. Small quantity of light alcohol is advise after meal. v. Heavy doses of vitamin A,B & C should be provided. 3. Physical Therapy i. Sportsman should expose to open air swimming.  41 ii. Warm bath 15 - 20 minutes at 33 0c to 370c temperature may be given. iii. Cold and fresh water shower in the morning should be followed by proper rubbing massage by towels. iv. Rhythmic exercises with the help of music may be given. v. Sona bath and steam bath should be avoided completely. (Body loose lots of electrolytes) 4. Climate Therapy i. Change in the environment for e.g. Hill area to plan region. ii. Light sun rays treatment is advise. ADAPTATION PROCESS Indeed the nature and process of adaptation which include both physiological and psychological aspect of training not yet derived completely. Whenever any sportsman participates in sports training or competition in which muscles of the body are made to contract through exercise or movement as per the demand of the body in relation to particular sports. This continuous act of movement needs more energy which is produce by carbohydrarate, protein and fat etc in the human body. For the quick and immediate requirement of the energy carbohydrarate is the main source of energy. When movement / exercise continue for quite long period there is decrease in the energy substance take place. For the fulfillment of this energy requirement metabolic process take place in the body as a result of which some compound chemical produce out of which one of the chemical compound is known as lactic acid. As the physical exercises are performed comparatively for more time the amount of lactic acid increase in the muscle which causes fatigue in the body. If we are able to provide a correct ratio of recovery during training which helps to control the quantity of lactic acid in the muscle and gradually one passes through the limit of fatigue. In this context it may be understood that recovery is directly Complete Guide to Sports Training 42 related with the result of fatigue. LOAD AND ADAPTATION During the sports training and competition the load is given in the form of exercises or movements as per the demand of the body in relation to the particular sports or event. Therefore the process of demand create disturbance in the Psycho-Physiological state of the human body. To overcome this problem all the structural and functional parts acts together to regain the normal condition of the organism. When the process of loading continue for a longer time specially in days then the structural and metabolic changes take place in the human body. The continuous acts of exercises/ movements lead to tolerate the more loads as a result of which adjusting to the external conditions the performance capacity increases. This way tackling of load is termed as adaptation. Adaptation:- Adaptation may be define as the adjustment of physical and psychological functional systems accomplished under the influence of external load, to a higher performance standard and the adjustment to the specific external conditions. The physical and psychological adaptation is the similar process which brings about changes in the functional, biomechanical and structural changes in the human body. LAWS / RULES / CONDITION OF ADAPTATION There is direct relationship between the load and adaptation. This relationship is governed by certain laws which are called as laws of adaptation which are explained as under:- Optimum load leads to better adaptation- The load should be given as per the capacity of in individual because if the load is less adaptation will not start similarly if the load is high recovery process is delayed.  43 1. Correct proportion between load and recovery- Better adaptation always needs the maintenance of correct proportion between load and recovery. There should be proper rest between training sessions. Due to hetrochronocity the various organs of the body recover at different pace hence complete rest may be provide at the end of a week. 2. Adaptation is faster in beginners in comparison to trained sportsman - for the better adaptation in case of beginners the load should be given in linear form where as for trained sportsman it should be given as per the individual capacity. 3. Exposure to new and inhabitable exercises leads to faster adaptation - If a sportsman expose to new and inhabitable specific exercises the adaptation process will be faster among trained sportsman. 4. Specific load leads to specific development - In case of trained sportsman load given in the specific exercises suitable for the particular game leads to better adaptation process. For e.g. If we want to improve the speed of basketball players, than the load should be given in the form of specific exercises with the ball. 5. Correct proportion between load tolerance and training load:- It is true that if the correct proportion between load tolerance and training load is maintained then the performance will improve gradually which will lead to better adaptation process. 6. Adaptation is not permanent through training load: There are various stages of the competition the preparation for the competition through training load not lead to stable adaptation if the training is stopped the load will adapt at lower level if the training is continue then the adaptation process will also improve. 7. For optimum adaptation maximum load is essential: Stable load does not lead to any improvement in adaptation process therefore for the optimum level of Complete Guide to Sports Training 44 adaptation 2 -3 times in a year the maximum load should be given. 8. Adaptation is faster if perfect ratio between intensity and volume is maintained: For the faster adaptation if the volume is high intensity should be low similarly if the intensity is high volume should be low. 9. Continuity in training and load factor: Once / twice load given to a player does not lead to any kind of adaptation process. Hence training should continue for so many days and load should be given regularly as per the capacity of the sportsman. 10. Adaptation leads in duration which is required for the structure of training load: The adaptation process varies from time to time as per the requirement and structure of training load. 11. Variation in training means quick phase of super compensation: It is very difficult to create the phase of super compensation at the faster rate but variation in training means create quick phase of super compensation. LOAD AND RECOVERY RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LOAD AND RECOVERY FACTORS AFFECTING RECOVERY (i) Intensity of Load: Sportsman recovers from intensive load because high intensity causes faster fatigue but after activity the recovery is also faster. (ii) Volume of Load: Sportsman recovers slow from volume load. Because high volume causes slow fatigue but after activity it also makes the recovery process delayed. (iii) Nature of Load: After training load one need to recover from fatigue. This recovery process is fulfilled by production of energy through ATP-CP system and depletion of glycogen. ATP system caused faster recovery where as glycogen cause or take long time to recover. (iv) Health: Recovery process is control by central  45 nervous system which is influence by the hormonal interaction. Hence the sound health is the prime characteristics of faster recovery. (v) Physical Fitness: A physically fit person recovers faster in comparison to sedentary person. Basic endurance is important factor and specific endurance may help in faster recovery. (vi) Nutrition: Balance diet containing all required nutrients are important for faster recovery, after training meal like carbohydrate sodium potassium and vitamins taken into liquid form are good for quick recovery. Similarly meal taken five times a day in fixed time and good eating habits are considered to be ideal for faster recovery. (vii) Sleep: 7-8 hours of sound sleep is established fact for recovery it not only recover physiologically but psychological too. (viii) Daily Routine: Proper daily routine helps to improve the recovery process. A set routine of a sportsman in the form of circular bio rhythm, if the process is disturbed than the recovery process is affected adversely. (ix) Total Load: The sum offload given in a day directly influence the recovery process. If the lod is beyond the capacity of a sportsman than the recovery process is delayed. (x) Age: Youngman recover faster in comparison to older one. (xi) Sex: Recovery process is slower in female in comparison to male. (xii) Experience: Experience people recover faster and quicker due to the movement quality of a sportsman. (xiii) Climatic Factors: In colder places sportsman recover faster in comparison to hot places. MEANS OF FASTER RECOVERY Training Methodological Means (a) Macro Cycle: Generally this is the period which Complete Guide to Sports Training 46 is decided into preparatory, competition and transitional period. During the transitional period after the hard preparatory and competition period, the exercises done at low pace with medium volume are very much effective for recovery process. In other way the correct formulation of load dynamics in a macro cycle helps to prevent accumulation of fatigue. (b) Meso Cycle: The Meso cycle have a normal duration of 3-6 week after each Meso cycle a week time is devoted for the recovery process. Again low training load is helpful to achieve the faster recovery. In Meso cycle the use of general exercises with proper adjustment of load dynamics is also important for prevention and accumulation of fatigue. (c) Micro Cycle: Since the duration of micro cycle is very short i.e., about one week hence in this period the recovery can be ensured by doing the following : i. Training load should not remain constant ii. There should be variation in Training i.e. strength training. iii. During this period one or two Training session of about 60-90 min should be devoted for active recovery. iv. At the end of micro cycle complete rest should be given. (d) Training Session i. Warming - Up ii. Sequence of exercises and task iii. Rest Pauses iv. Cool Down Nutritional Means (a) Sportsman is advised to take balance diet (b) After Training session light digestive drinks containing carbohydrates, minerals and vitamins are suggested for faster recovery. (c) Inculcate the good eating habits in fixed time.  47 Physiotherapeutic Means (a) Physiotherapeutic means should be selected carefully with the consultation of experts. (b) Sona bath should not be used more than twice a week (c) Physiotherapeutic means should be used in addition to the training means but these means should not substitute the training means. Psychological means Psychological means are also helpful for accelerating the recovery process. These means should not be used during training or just after the competition but use of psychological means between the training sessions or just before the sleep are very much useful for sound sleep. Complete Guide to Sports Training 48 6 TRAINING METHODS DEFINITIONS OF TRAINING According to Martin, “Sports training is a planed and controlled process of achieving goals in which the changes of motor performance and behaviour are made through measures of content, methods and organizations.” According to Mathew, “Sports training is the basic form of preparation of sportsmen.” According to Thiess and Schnabel, “Sports training is scientifically based and pedagogically organised process which through planned and systematic, effect on performance ability and performance readiness aims at sports perfection and performance improvement as well as at the contest in sports competitions." According to Harre, “Sports training, based on scientific knowledge, is a pedagogical process of sports perfection which through systematic effect on psycho-physical performance ability and performance readiness aims at leading the sportsman to high and the highest performance. Through active and conscious interaction with the given demands in sports training, the sportsman's personality develops according to the norms and standards of socialist society.” MEANING OF TRAINING METHODS Training methods is highly a specialized field, which aims for high performance level. Training to improve fitness components and other required aspects. This methodology cover wide area of physiological, Psychological and social aspects, apart from these the individual also, works on technique tactics, skill and strategy of related activity. This is again applicable differently to every individual, though can be designed for groups also. In the field of sports and games keeping  49 individual differences in consideration is valuable, Every method is known for its special component, therefore it is required to know by a trainer that which athlete require which component or quality more. Training is well in advance organized programme with an aim of optimum performance. Training is a basic process of preparation for the highest level of performance, this preparation can be for any kind of activity. It is physiological, psychological, intellectual preparation of an individual in a systematic instructional process to assist the athlete for achieving highest possible performance. Training is a systematic and scientifically designed work out of physical exercises and mental preparedness for the attainment of optimum level of performance. Training is a process designed for the development of various motor and psychological qualities need specifically by individual who is under straining to perform at best possible level in competition. Training is a programme organized to achieve all needed aspects of physical fitness, technical and tactical demands and psychological preparedness, which increases the capabilities of performer. METHODS IN SPORTS TRAINING Methods of training show the correct and different ways to develop the fitness components. Each method aims to develop one or the other component. The selection of method depends upon period of training level of athlete, age and sex of athlete etc and the selection of correct method for needed type of training is very important. Below some training methods are presented which aims for the development of three basic components of physical fitness and wellness i.e. STRENGTH, ENDURANCE AND SPEED. METHODS OF STRENGTH DEVELOPMENT Three common effective methods of muscular strength development are :- (i) Isotonic Exercises Complete Guide to Sports Training 50 (ii) Isometric Exercises (iii) Isokinetic Exercises (i) ISOTONIC EXERCISES 'Iso' means 'same' 'Tonic' means 'tension'/'resistance'. Isotonic exercises are those contracting exercises where the load taken by related muscles remains constant throughout the complete range of joint. As movement of muscles involved this contraction is rhythmic in nature. It is characterized by constant resistance on muscles involved in complete motion. In Isotonic contraction length of related muscles keeps on changing with no variation in load. Example Bicep curls with constant weight. It involves (i) concentric and (ii) Eccentric contractions. (i) Concentric contraction: Any movement characterized by shortening (Principle action of muscles) of flexor muscle and lengthening of extensor muscle. Concentric contraction is commonly known as Shortening Contraction ( the prime muscle actually shortens). (ii) Eccentric contraction: Any movement characterized by shortening of extensor muscle and lengthening of flexor muscle. Eccentric contraction is commonly known as Lengthening Contraction.  51 ADVANTAGES OF ISOTONIC CONTRACTION a) It involves basic movements (flexion and extension etc) of joints,. Basic fundamental movements are easy to perform. b) Muscle endurance is the assistant component developed. c) Fast gain of muscle hypertrophy (increased thickness). d) Somebody weight can be used to perform exercises (situps etc) e) Helpful in development of some specific skills. Skills which need fundamental movements of javelin throwing, basketball shooting etc. f) It is an effective method to develop dynamic strength. DISADVANTAGES OF ISOTONIC CONTRACTION a) Chances to have soft tissue injuries as it is dynamic in nature. b) For effective results, sometimes good equipments are required. c) These exercises can not be performed anywhere (eg squat etc). ii. ISOMETRIC EXERCISES 'Iso' means 'same' 'Metric' means 'length'. Isometric exercises are those contracting exercises where the length of related muscles remains constant throughout the workout. It is characterized by not any kind of change in the length of muscle involved. As no movement can be performed no change in length of related muscle this contraction is static in nature. These exercises involve the tension (tension is Complete Guide to Sports Training 52 developed) but there cannot be any change in length of related muscle holding weight in static position. Pushing against any object without overcoming resistance are the common examples of isometric exercises. ADVANTAGES OF ISOMETRIC CONTRACTION a) Essential activity of Rehabilitative programme. In the recovery phase injured athlete goes for this type of contraction. (Intensity of workout depends upon stage of recovery) b) Iso metric contraction can be performed without any equipment. (Using body weight). c) Isometric exercises can be performed anywhere. d) As there is no rest phase in isometric contraction, involved muscles working efficiency improves. e) It is helpful in development of specific slalls, which need static movements of - shooting, archery etc. f) It is an effective method to develop static strength, (Maximum strength). g) Muscle endurance, is an assistant component developed. DISADVANTAGES OF ISOMETRIC (i) Isometric exercises can not be the part of daily training programme. It can cause lose of interest. (ii) Quick release of tension may cause injuries. (iii) During Isometric contraction blood pressure raises, this may lead to serious consequences. (iv) Athletes of major games do not prefer to put much concentration on isometric exercises. (III) ISOKINETIC EXERCISES: 'Iso' means 'same' "Kinetic' means 'motion'. Isokinetic exercises are those contractual exercises the tension in flexor throughout the movement. Isokinetic exercises are characterized with constant speed. In these exercises maximal contraction occurs throughout the full range of motion. As Isokinetic involves movement of joints, these are dynamic in nature  53 but require advanced and special machines/equipments (eg multigym etc) to perform. ADVANTAGES OF ISOKINETIC Isokinetic is method for (a) Fast development of involved muscles. (b) Isokinetic exercises develop flexor muscle and extensor muscle simultaneously. (c) It requires less effort in compaired with Isometric or Isotonic. (d) t is helpful in development of specific skills like swimming, cycling etc. (e) Muscle endurance and speed are assistant components developed. DISADVANTAGES OF ISOKINETICS a) Controlled is kinetic contraction can be performed with equipments only. b) Is kinetic equipments are advanced therefore need good maintenance. c) It is a advanced method therefore require special supervision on performer. d) It cannot be performed anywhere. METHODS OF ENDURANCE DEVELOPMENT Three effective methods of endurance development are: 1. Continuous Training Method 2. Interval Training Method 3. Fartlek Training Method 1. CONTINUOUS TRAINING METHOD Dr. V. Aaken is the main head behind inventing this effective method for endurance development. The rest intervals in the training programme are missing. It is a continuous workout without any break. This method is generally used once in a week in advanced training programme. This method is also used for beginners with low intensity. There are three type of continuous training method: (a) Slow Continuous Method Complete Guide to Sports Training 54 (b) Fast continuous Method (c) Slow fast (alternate) continuous method. a) Slow continuous method- In this method athlete runs slower from his racing pace but on the other paint he runs more distance than the actual race. This is mainly used by 'Marathon' runners or even very effective for long distance track events. General athlete also adopts this method with approximately covering 25-30 kms. It took 30 to 40 minute extra than the completion timing. Heartbeat goes about 160 per minute. b) Fast continuous method- In this method athlete runs faster from his racing pace but the distance covered is decreased if compaired to actual race distance. This method is mainly used by medium distance runners. General athletes also adopt this method with approximately covering 5 to 10 Kms. It took about 5 to 8 minutes less time, depends upon distance reduced and intensity increased. Heartbeat goes about 190 per minute. c) Slow fast continuous method- In this method the athlete running pace varies or the running pace is not fixed in this method. It is a combination of slow and fast running. This method is very general in nature and can be used by beginners. This method is adopted by almost in every game and sport-conditioning programme. The time variation of slow running and fast running decides the intensity here. This method covers approximate 10 - 15 Km of distance and the heartbeat goes about 200 per minute. (This method ends up in fast running pace.) Advantages of continuous method (I) This method does not require any special guidance lean be performed easily by beginners. (II) This method gives out good experience about actual competition. For example - Marathon (III) It is effective method during off season for maintaining endurance. (IV) As variation in pace can be made, this method is well adjustable from athlete's points of view.  55 (V) This method does not require any specific ground. (Roads are the best & easiest way, but safety must be there) (VI) Develop both Aerobic and Anaerobic endurance. Disadvantages of continuous method (I) This method sometimes requires good knowledge of time and pace managements. (II) It is difficult to apply this method on a group at a time. This is mainly a individuals training programme. 2. INTERVAL TRAINING METHOD Woldermar Gershler is the person who introduced this method. The rest period during workout is the main part in this method. The load of work in this method is mainly decided by taking the period pf rest in consideration. In this method the heart rate in intervals between the runs is controlling factor. After workout the heart rate in the rest period when comes around 120 beats per minute, the athlete is allowed to restart the work out in same manner as was in previous. The duration of rest period when comes around 120 beats per minute, the athlete is allowed to restart the workout in some manner as was in previous. The duration of rest period must be of 80-90 seconds ( if target is to get 120 beats per minute in resting heart rate).The duration here also decided the work load. Interval training method is mainly used by advanced coaches and athletes. Interval training in general is short breaks alternating with intensive short workout. Three type of Interval training are- a. Target Running- In this type of interval method runner fixed "Distance or Time as a target and start with a slow pace running to racing pace upto the target. After getting the target (Distance or time) athlete again shows down his/her running pace. This work outs is followed by Intervals. The duration of intervals depend upon the difficulty level of target and athletes potential. In short it is a continuous running with increasing speed. This is mainly adopted by short and medium distance runners. Complete Guide to Sports Training 56 This method consists of 5-6 intervals and to duration is 60-120 minutes. b. Repeat Running-In this method runner keeps on repeating the work out of running at or above the race pace after each rest period. Here also runner runs for a given distance or time this is also applied mainly by short and medium distance runners. It is also practiced by players of major games like foot ball players, basket ball players etc. the integral duration differ individual to individual. This method consists of 3-A intervals and its duration is 60-90 minutes. c. Formal Running- In this runner covers the racing distance (competition distance)..Within a well-decided time as good Athlete go for formal running distance and try to achieve that given distance within specified distance. This method is mainly used by short distance runners. This method consists of 4-5 intervals and its duration is 60-120 minutes. Advantages of Interval Training Method I. It improves both energy producing system that is AEROBIC and ANAERIOBIC. ii. Speed is the assistant component developed by this method. i. This method requires less time period if compared to continuous method. ii. This method having less strain if compared to other method of endurance development. iii. It gives good competitive experience, mainly by Formal running method. iv. Preferred to every athlete of any games or sport for endurance development. v. Components of load (intensity, volume etc) can be managed easily in this method. Disadvantages of Interval Training Methods. i. This method requires well-trained coaches or good knowledge of training methodology.  57 i. It requires well-marked track, indicators for distance covered and timers etc. FARTLEK TRAINING METHOD Astrand is the person who introduced this method; Fartlek is a modified cross-country running. This method is characterized by variable running paces, no active rest is provided. Rather the slow running (jogging) is the rest period in this method and athlete runs on the road, terrain path, park land, small mills etc. The fast running period with the recovery (slow running) periods works alternately and depends upon the athlete's adoption of load. Fertlek is an advanced training method and mainly used by distance runners. It is performed by well experiences and advanced athletes because it has no predetermined schedule to follow. The length of both periods (fast running pace and recovery interval) can be changed during workout. Self-awareness and highly pace judgment skills are required to experience different running paces and long short recovery intervals as demanded. Fartlek is also very effective for athlete of every games and sports. Number of intervals depends upon athlete's workout level and immediate fitness level. There is no preplanned duration or distance or number of intervals in this method. An average athlete may cover 20-40 kms. (or more ). Advantages of Fartlek training Method i. It develops self-awareness and pace judgement skills in an athlete. ii. It gives opportunity to athlete to experiment his fitness level by increasing racing pace and checking fitness of recovery period. Complete Guide to Sports Training 58 iii. It is an adventurous and creative effort (This create interest in athlete). iv. It is effectively applicable to all athletes (athlete any game or sport) vi. Fartlek method athlete is independent to perform in the way he/she likes. vii. It can also be practiced off season. Disadvantages of Fartlek Method. i. Fartlek method requires well-trained coaches and good knowledge of training Methodology. ii. As nothing is very specifically perished led, this method is mainly for advanced athletes. iii. Path followed/Track selection may cause harms. If unknowlgly it involves slippery runway, thorns etc. Athlete sometime last actual path also. iv. It is hard to measure actual distanced covered by athlete. METHODS OF SPEED DEVELOPMENT Two effective methods of speed developments- i. Acceleration Runs. ii. Pace runs. In every speed workout three phases arrives that is. a) Acceleration phase-This includes starting to achieve the race pace by an athlete. This is a process of speeding up of athlete. b) Racing phase-This includes the racing pace. This is a process where athlete runs allot and at the maximum speed possible. c) Deceleration Phase- This includes the showing down from racing phase. Athlete cannot stop him self abruptly. Therefore the deceleration phase is adopted properly. (i) ACCELERATION RUN METHOD In this method the more emphasis is given on first phase of speed workout (Acceleration Phase). In this method athlete concentrates on starting and then gaining the maximum speed as fast as possible, but he/she does not maintain the maximum speed. Athlete tries to slow