IAAF Introduction to Coaching PDF

I N T E R N AT I O N A L A S S O C I AT I O N O F AT H L E T I C S F E D E R AT I O N S Introduction to Coaching The Official IAAF Guide to Coaching Athletics I N T E R N AT I O N A L A S S O C I AT I O N O F AT H L E T I C S F E D E R AT I O N S Intr...

I N T E R N AT I O N A L A S S O C I AT I O N O F AT H L E T I C S F E D E R AT I O N S Introduction to Coaching The Official IAAF Guide to Coaching Athletics I N T E R N AT I O N A L A S S O C I AT I O N O F AT H L E T I C S F E D E R AT I O N S Introduction to Coaching The O ff icial IAAF Guide to C oaching Athletics Peter J L Thompson IAAF Coaches Education and Certification System Throughout the IAAF Coaches Education and Certification System “he”, “him” and “his” have been used inclusively and are intended to apply equally to men and women. It is important in Athletics, as elsewhere, that women and men should have equal status and equal opportunities. © The International Association of Athletics Federations 2009 Any section of this book may be photocopied for non-profit teaching purposes within educational institutions or coach education settings provided that the original IAAF source is visibly and prominently quoted. Apart from these specific permissions, no part of this book may be included in any publication, magazine, newsletter, journal or stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form, or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of the International Association of Athletics Federations. Previous edition: Introduction to Coaching Theory. IAAF, 1991 Author: Peter J L Thompson ISBN 1 873574 01 0 Graphic Design: Britta Sendlhofer, Descartes Publishing Printer: Warners Midlands plc, The Maltings, Manor Lane, Bourne, Lincolnshire PE10 9PH, UK  Contents President’s Message 1 Social development 49 Self image 50 Preface 1 Ability and effort 51 When mistakes happen 52 Acknowledgements 2 Play, sport and competition 52 Kids’ Athletics 54 Chapter 1 Implications for the coach 55 Developing a Coaching Philosophy 5 Developing the Athlete 57 What do we mean by philosophy? 5 Athlete development – the long term approach 57 What is coaching? 5 Stages of athlete development 57 The roles of a coach 6 Stage 1 – the Kids’ Athletics stage 58 Developing a coaching philosophy 7 Stage 2 – the Multi-Events stage 59 Knowledge of yourself 7 Stage 3 – the Event Group Development stage 59 Knowledge of objectives 8 Stage 4 – the Specialisation stage 60 Philosophy and coaching styles 9 Stage 5 – the Performance stage 60 The coach-athlete relationship 10 Athlete development and maturation 62 The IAAF code of ethics for coaches 13 Planning, competition and athlete development 62 Drugs in athletics 13 Discussion topics 14 Chapter 4 Developing Physical Fitness 67 Chapter 2 The Body in Sport and Athletics 67 Developing the Skills of Coaching 17 Cells 67 The basic skills of coaching 17 The skeleton 67 Building and developing relationships 19 Muscles 69 Providing instruction and explanation 20 Muscle fibre types 74 Providing demonstrations 22 How muscles pull 74 Types of demonstrations 22 Dynamic contractions 74 Observe and analyse 26 Static contractions 75 Providing feedback 29 The nervous system 76 The skill of communication 31 Exercise Physiology 79 Developing effective communication skills 32 The energy systems 79 Aerobic energy system 81 Chapter 3 ATP-CP energy system 81 Developing the Athlete 39 Lactate energy system 82 Growth and Development 39 The cardio-respiratory system 85 Physical development 39 Lungs 85 Patterns of growth 39 The Heart 85 Growth spurts 42 The blood vessels and the blood 86 Differences between boys and girls 42 Individual differences 86 Early and late developers 44 Body composition 87 Structure of the body 44 The Components of Fitness 89 Children and exercise 44 What is fitness? 89 Developing control of movement 45 Developing Endurance 92 Children’s basic movements 46 Aerobic endurance 92 Children’s basic capabilities 47 Anaerobic endurance 92 Developmental windows of opportunity 47 Development of endurance 92 Introduction to Coaching – The Official IAAF Guide to Coaching Athletics  Continuous Training 93 Principle of active involvement 138 Repetition Training 93 Developing a plan 139 Developing general endurance 93 Planning the training programme 140 Repetition training and interval training 94 Periodisation 141 Pace for endurance training 96 Volume and intensity 141 Developing event specific endurance 96 The preparation period 142 Developing Speed 99 The competition period 143 Types of speed 99 The transition period 143 Development of speed 100 The plan in action 144 Reaction time 101 Planning the session and the training week 145 Developing Strength 103 Planning the microcycle 145 Types of strength 103 Planning the training session 148 Maximum strength 103 Principles of effective training sessions 149 Power 104 The warm up 150 Reactive strength 104 The cool down 151 Strength endurance 105 Sample session plans 152 Development of strength 105 Review and evaluation 154 Free weights 106 The stiff-leg deadlift 108 Chapter 6 The squat 110 Developing Technical Skills 157 The back squat 110 Developing and controlling Forces 157 Young athletes and weight training 113 What is force? 157 The front squat 114 The way athletes move 157 The overhead squat 115 Velocity and acceleration 158 Strength endurance training 116 Momentum 159 Exercises using body weight 116 Principles of force development 160 Circuit training 119 Laws of motion 160 Exercises with medicine balls 121 Newton’s first law of motion 161 Developing Flexibility 122 Newton’s second law of motion 161 What is flexibility? 122 Newton’s third law of motion 161 Flexibility in the warm up 122 Centre of gravity 162 Flexibility to increase the ROM 123 Developing Technique 165 Mobilisation exercises in the warm up 125 Techniques and skills 165 Stretching exercises for increase of ROM 127 Simple and complex skills 166 Developing Coordination 128 Technique and skill learning 166 Stages of learning 166 Chapter 5 The thinking and understanding stage 168 Developing a Planned Approach The practising and learning stage 168 to Training 131 The skilled or advanced stage 169 The Principles of Training 131 Methods of teaching simple technical skills 169 What is training? 131 The imitation method 170 Principle of overload 131 The demonstration-practice-feedback Principle of reversibility 133 method 170 Principle of specificity 135 Methods of teaching complex technical skills 170 Why training ‘works’ 135 Shaping a complex skill 170 Principle of individualisation 136 Chaining a complex skill 171 Principle of variety 138 Shaping vs. chaining 172 Introduction to Coaching – The Official IAAF Guide to Coaching Athletics Chapter 7 The digestive system 209 Developing Mental Skills 175 The nutrient balance 209 Basic Mental Skills 175 Nutrition and the young athlete 210 Communication 176 Nutrition and the female athlete 210 Commitment 176 Supplements 211 Goal-setting 177 Pre- and post-performance nutrition 211 Control 177 A healthy and balanced diet 212 Confidence 179 Concentration 179 The IAAF Code of Ethics for Coaches 215 Workshop – Mental skills training in practice 180 About the Author 217 Chapter 8 Developing a Safe Environment 183 Prevention of injury 183 Prevention through skill 184 Prevention through fitness 184 Photo Credits Prevention through nutrition 185 Getty Images Prevention through warm up 186 Covers, inside and outside, 1, 4, 13, 16, 17, 30, 38, Prevention through environment 186 41, 49, 50, 53 (bottom), 59, 60, 63, 66, 71, 76, 77, 78, Prevention through treatment 186 81, 82, 83, 87, 90, 91, 94, 95, 98, 99, 102, 106, 113 Sort tissue injuries 187 (bottom), 119 (bottom), 123, 124, 136, 137, 138, 156, Immediate treatment and first aid 188 159, 164, 167, 174,175, 182, 185, 189 Factors affecting recovery 190 Injuries to the ankle 191 Peter J L Thompson Rehabilitation of sports injuries 192 5, 6, 12, 14, 19, 23, 31, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, Developing an injury management programme 192 113 (top), 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119 (top), 130, 151, Activity guide for injured athletes 193 198, 200, 202, 204, 205, 207, 213 Water training 194 Cycling 194 IAAF Weight training 195 23, 46, 52, 53 (top), 54, 55, 56, 58, 100, 103 Recreational walking 195 Stretching and relaxation 195 Ibrahim Hussein 217 Chapter 9 Developing a Healthy Diet 199 Tahar Righi Nutrition 199 171 Calories 200 The energy balance 201 Sean Burges Nutrients 202 125, 126, 127, 151 Carbohydrates 202 Proteins 204 Fat 205 Vitamins 206 Minerals 206 Water 207 Fibre 208 Introduction to Coaching – The Official IAAF Guide to Coaching Athletics  “Why would someone plant the seeds of a tree the shade of which they will never see?” Greek proverb Dedication This book is dedicated to all coaches who help athletes to achieve their potential and to those coaches who, additionally, find the time and energy to help educate the coaches of the future. Introduction to Coaching – The Official IAAF Guide to Coaching Athletics  1 President’s Message I am very pleased to welcome the publication of Introduction to Coaching - the official IAAF guide to coaching athletics. I am convinced that this book, which contains the very latest understanding of the sport sciences and coaching practice, will have a very positive impact on the development of coaches. The innovative, competence-based approach taken through these pages truly moves coaching theory into coaching practice. It is evident that the work of qualified coaches is vital for the development of athletics in all countries. It is also clear that the coach working in schools, clubs and other local organisations plays a key role in the identification, motivation and development of those athletes who go on to enjoy a long athletics career and achieve their potential. For this reason, the education of coaches has been an important and ongoing goal of the Development Programme of the IAAF since 1980. I would like to thank the main author for his experienced input and conscientious work. I also would like to thank the specialists and consultants from all over the world for their contribution to this important publication and to the whole programme in general. Finally, I hereby express my gratitude to the Member Services Department as well as the CECS lecturers and the coaches for their contribution to the success of the IAAF Coaches Education and Certification System. Lamine Diack, IAAF President Preface It has been said that, “We stand on the shoulders of giants.” This means on the shoulders of all the pioneers and leaders who have gone before us. I, truly, stand on the shoulders of many giants who have contributed to my being able to write this book. These ‘giants’ include athletics coaches, coaches from other sports, academics and researchers and, by no means least, athletes. I have had the good fortune and privilege to come into personal contact with a great number of outstanding coaches. These have included former British national coaches such as John le Mesurier, Dennis Watts, Ron Pickering, Wilf Paish, Frank Dick, Norman Brook and Tom McNab. It also includes other coaches from the UK and around the world, such as Jim Alford, Bill Bowerman, Frank Horwill, Elio Locatelli, Bill Dellinger, Arthur Lydiard and Jack Daniels, who have also provided insights and inspiration. More recently, from 2000-2007, I worked with UK Athletics on a new, competence-based coach education programme. During this time I was fortunate to strategically plan, create and deliver with colleagues: Mel Curds, Linda Low, Penny Crisfield, Jeremy Harries, Maggie Still, Mike Johnston, Sarah McQuade and Clive Brewer. Their feedback was a constant and welcome source of growth and refreshment for me. As a coach, I have always tried to gain an understanding of why I do, what I do, when I coach. But, firstly, I have experimented intuitively in training sessions, hopefully not to the detriment of the athletes, looking for immediate and long-term effects. Afterwards I have sought explanations for these effects, if they were available. This was, and is, a recognition of the fundamental truth expressed in Roger Bannister’s Introduction to Coaching – The Official IAAF Guide to Coaching Athletics 2 observation in 1955, after breaking the 4-minute mile barrier the previous year, that, “The human body is centuries in advance of the physiologist.” When I began my coaching in the early 1970s, watching the emerging Kenyans gave me a clue and direction to follow in structuring running training. Also, at this time, the ‘human potential’ movement was awakening. Reading the works of Hans Selye, Abraham Maslow, Timothy Gallwey, Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, Albert Bandura, Edmund Jacobson and Gunnar Borg gave me an appreciation of the potential for a holistic, athlete-centred approach to coaching. More recently, the published works of Dr George Brooks and Professor Michael Apter have offered answers to fundamental questions in our understanding of metabolic energy production and mental states. Much has changed since 1991 when I wrote the then IAAF CECS Level I text titled Introduction to Coaching Theory. Coaching practice is dynamic and has moved on, coach education is finally becoming competence-based and the IAAF has a new, five-level, global Coaches Education and Certification System, CECS. When first reviewing the changes to be made to the original book, with feedback from around the world, it appeared that only ten percent of the text might need changing. In reality, the work has proven considerably more extensive and the book you are now holding has been restructured and essentially re-written. The competence-based approach taken is designed to move coaching theory into coaching practice and provide the coach with an appreciation of both ‘how to coach’ as well as ‘what to coach’. The IAAF’s aim is to provide what coaches need. The contents of Introduction to Coaching provide coaches with the following four things: zz An understanding of the cyclical nature of the process of coaching, the repeated passage from planning, to doing, to reviewing and on again to planning zz A recognition of the five basic skills of coaching and then application and practice of these skills within their coaching zz A basic knowledge and practical understanding and application of the sport sciences zz A focus to ‘see’ the athlete and make their coaching athlete-centred and appropriately coach-led. The content of this book reflects the currently accepted views of coaches’ education knowledge and competence in athletics world-wide. This was arrived at by an examination of coaches’ education resource materials and practice gathered in cooperation with IAAF Member Federations, representing all six IAAF Areas and all levels of athletics development. Acknowledgements The completion of this book was made easier by the work and assistance of a great many expert colleagues around the world. In particular, the IAAF would like to acknowledge the contributions, in alphabetical order and not in order of contribution, of the following individuals: Clive Brewer (GBR), Penny Crisfield (GBR), Jim Denison (USA), Frank Dick (GBR), Oscar Gadea (URU), Antonio La Torre (ITA), Lenford Levy (JAM), Elio Locatelli (ITA), Victor Lopez (PUR), Linda Low (GBR), El Hebil Abdel Malek (MAR), Fletcher McEwen (AUS), Ralph Mouchbahani (GER), Tahar Righi (ALG), Wolfgang Ritzdorf (GER), Loren Seagrave (USA), Joel Severe (MRI), Alain Smail (FRA), Augustine Soga (NGR), Debbie Strange (NZL), John Velzian (KEN), Jorge Vieira (POR). Introduction to Coaching – The Official IAAF Guide to Coaching Athletics  3 1 Developing a Coaching Philosophy Introduction to Coaching – The Official IAAF Guide to Coaching Athletics 4 DeVELOPING A Coaching Philosophy Introduction to Coaching – The Official IAAF Guide to Coaching Athletics  1 DeVELOPING A Coaching PhilosophY 5 Developing a Coaching Philosophy You may think it strange to start a practical book about coaching by talking about philosophy. Yet nothing is as practical as a well developed philosophy of life and of coaching. This philosophy determines every thought, every action and every decision you make. No matter who you are, from where you come or how you come to be in coaching you bring ideas, opinions and attitudes from a lifetime of personal experience. Take this opportunity to examine how well you know yourself and what you want to achieve as a coach. Without this knowledge it is difficult to have a well defined philosophy. Without a well defined coaching philosophy it is difficult to be a successful and effective coach. What do we mean by Philosophy? Philosophy is simply the way you see situations and experiences in your life. It is the way you view people and develop relationships with them. It is also the value you put on all of these. You already have a philosophy of life and this may be well developed. You may be aware of your philosophy or you may be unaware, behaving and doing things without giving much thought to the reasons for your decisions. Whether you are very aware of your philosophy, partially aware or completely unaware, this personal philosophy is always developing and will do so throughout your life. What is Coaching? The term ‘coaching’ is often used to cover a wide range of activities, usually to help someone prepare for something. Coaching in athletics has been described as the organised provision of assistance to an individual athlete or group of athletes in order to help them develop and improve. Many people would claim to help in this way, for example, parents, teachers, officials and sponsors. So what does coaching really involve? Coaching involves teaching, training, instructing and more. It is not simply about helping people to learn sports skills, improve performance and reach their potential. It is also about recognising, understanding, respecting and providing for the other needs of athletes. These needs are many and cover a wide range such as social and emotional needs, as well as the more obvious needs related to athletics and competition. As a good coach you should have a code of behaviour based on a code of ethics which places the rights and needs of your athletes before those of yourself. You will need to develop a caring and continuing relationship with the athletes you coach. Participation in athletics is a social process. Your coaching will therefore have great power to shape the lives of your athletes through this social process. Introduction to Coaching – The Official IAAF Guide to Coaching Athletics 6 DeVELOPING A Coaching Philosophy The Roles of a Coach It is possible to see your only job as a coach in setting exercises and tasks to bring about changes in performance. Experienced coaches will point out that this is only part of the picture. As a coach you will have many jobs and functions. Some you will perform willingly, others will be less attractive to you, but are just as important. All these jobs or roles contribute to being a successful coach. Ask yourself now, “Do I, or can I, play the role of a…” “Do I, or can I, play the role of a…” teacher - imparting new knowledge, skills and ideas trainer - improving fitness instructor - directing activities and practices motivator - generating a positive and decisive approach disciplinarian - creating an environment for each athlete’s self-control manager - organising and planning administrator - dealing with the paperwork publicity agent - promoting athletics within society and possibly with the media social worker - counselling and advising friend - supporting scientist - analysing, evaluating and problem solving student - always willing to listen, learn and look for new knowledge Introduction to Coaching – The Official IAAF Guide to Coaching Athletics  1 DeVELOPING A Coaching PhilosophY 7 In most coaching situations any or all of these roles are combined and in all these situations you will need to make decisions. Your philosophy of life guides everyday decisions, while your coaching philosophy guides all the decisions you are faced with and encounter as a coach. So coaching calls upon many skills that are gained by experience and knowledge. This knowledge can be learnt but means little without practical application, that is the experience of coaching. Your Coaching Philosophy guides decisions and behaviour when you are coaching Your Philosophy of Life guides every day decisions and behaviour - Philosophy guides your decisions and behaviour Developing a Coaching Philosophy The key to developing a coaching philosophy is knowledge. Knowledge of yourself and knowledge of what you want to achieve, your objectives. In the same way that it is difficult to make a journey if you don’t know the destination, it is unlikely you will reach your coaching objectives if they are not clearly known to you. Knowledge of Yourself – Knowing Who You Are Why do you coach or want to coach? What do you value most in coaching? Are you, or will you be, proud of how you act as a coach? These and many more questions you could ask yourself. The following characteristics have been used to describe successful coaches and can be considered as ‘coaching strengths’. Get to know yourself better by completing the following table and rating yourself on each of the following statements. Introduction to Coaching – The Official IAAF Guide to Coaching Athletics 8 DeVELOPING A Coaching Philosophy Coaching Strengths - a Self Evaluation The following statements describe qualities and behaviours of effective and successful coaches. As you read each statement, fill in the circle you think your athletes would choose. This may not be what you would want them to choose, but should be what you think they would actually choose. Place a check mark  against all the areas you think you need to improve on. Areas of Poor Average Excellent Improvement Respects each athlete ____ Prepared and organised ____ Fair in the treatment of each athlete ____ Relaxed ____ Listens as much as ‘tells’ ____ Enthusiasm for all coaching roles ____ Provides a motivational environment ____ Knowledge of athletics ____ Adaptable ____ Patient with all - not just the best ____ Identifies and rewards effort ____ Builds each athlete’s confidence ____ Behaves in a consistent manner ____ Makes training focussed and fun ____ Respects other coaches and officials ____ Encourages all ____ Provides a positive role model ____ Knowledge of Objectives - Knowing What You Want to Achieve If you ask coaches what they want out of coaching the answers usually include: zz Winning zz Fun zz Athlete Development You may think that all three are important, but which is most important? Introduction to Coaching – The Official IAAF Guide to Coaching Athletics  1 DeVELOPING A Coaching PhilosophY 9 An athlete’s development is affected by the importance placed on winning or losing. Striving to win is always important. A ‘win at all costs’ attitude, however, ignores the development of the athlete. It is an attitude frequently used by those coaches who judge themselves by how well their athletes finish. By contrast, the view taken by many successful and experienced coaches is to place the long term development of the athlete as the single most important consideration. An emphasis on the development of the athlete is more likely to produce better performance, greater consistency and more satisfaction for the athlete and coach than an over emphasis on winning. Competition then becomes merely a challenging and satisfying way of measuring personal development. This philosophy has been expressed many times as: “Athletes First, Winning Second” It means: zz Athletics is seen as one aspect of a person’s life not his whole life zz There is respect and appreciation of the coach and his work zz Athletes decide with the coach the importance of performance and strive to meet their joint expectations zz There is respect for the laws and spirit of fair competition zz Athletes reaching their potential is seen as success zz There is respect for opponents, other coaches and officials Athletes first, winning second is an easy philosophy to understand, but more difficult to put into practice. As a coach you must decide for yourself the relative importance placed on your athletes’ development and winning. That decision should then be followed not just in words, but by every coaching action you take. This applies when things are going well, but more especially when they are not going so well. Philosophy and Coaching Styles - Becoming a Better Leader In the past the often accepted role of the coach was to be a dominant, authoritarian leader with the athlete as a disciplined follower. In the modern world the athlete is exposed to wider views and his vocabulary has expanded to include the word “why?” This should not be seen as a challenge of the coach or his position, but a healthy curiosity and involvement with their learning on the part of the athlete. Most coaches, who were athletes, tend to coach in the style that they were coached themselves. This is sometimes effective. To become a better coach you should look carefully at the coaching or leadership style you use most of the time. A good leadership style comes from your coaching philosophy and your personality and allows you to communicate more effectively with your athletes. In simple terms we can identify three distinct leadership styles, authoritarian, cooperative and casual. The characteristics of the three styles are compared in the following table. Introduction to Coaching – The Official IAAF Guide to Coaching Athletics 10 DeVELOPING A Coaching Philosophy Leadership style Authoritarian Cooperative Casual Philosophy Win centred Athlete centred No emphasis Objectives Task objectives Social & Task objectives No objectives Decisions are guided by Athletes make most if not Decision making Coach makes all decisions coach, but shared all decisions Communication style Telling Telling, asking listening Listening Communication development Little or none High None Judged by athlete and What is ‘winning’? Judged by coach Not defined coach Little or no trust in the Athlete development Trust in the athlete Trust not shown athlete Motivation Sometimes motivates Motivates all No motivation Training structure Inflexible Flexible None Comparison of Leadership Styles The authoritarian and casual styles are extremes and unlikely to be successful methods of coaching. The cooperative leadership style gives guidance and structure but also allows the athlete to develop physically, psychologically and socially. This style is more in line with the philosophy of “athletes first, winning second”. Sometimes the coach will need to move more towards the authoritarian style of coaching. This could be in a disciplinary situation or when safety is of primary importance, as in coaching the throwing events. Good coaches will be able to modify their style according to the athletes and their situation. The coaching style that is recommended for most situations is the cooperative style. The Coach-Athlete Relationship Is it possible to be successful in athletics without a coach, with no coach-athlete relationship? Certainly, there are some who think so. Do athletes really need coaches and do we need to consider the importance of coach-athlete relationships? Probably the first thing that decides whether an individual athlete ‘needs’ a coach is their age, their stage of development in athletics, what they want to achieve and their personality. It may also depend on the area of athletics they are most interested in. There are probably more self-coached athletes in the endurance events than there are in the ‘power’ events of the throws, jumps, sprints, hurdles and combined events. And, within the endurance events, there are probably more self-coached athletes in road and cross country running than there are in middle and long distance track or race walking events. Introduction to Coaching – The Official IAAF Guide to Coaching Athletics  1 DeVELOPING A Coaching PhilosophY 11 In the distant past coaches were not as plentiful as now and many athletes were basically self-coached through necessity. Most of the ‘coaching’, when ever and where ever athletes met, was in the form of ‘wisdom’ passed down from the senior and master athletes in the group. But over the past twenty years, since the late 1980s, the numbers of qualified coaches has increased globally with the combined effect of the coach education systems of the IAAF and some National Federations. When the coach and athlete in athletics have come together it has usually been through a chance meeting, frequently in a club environment. Together, the coach and athlete have built and developed a working relationship. This relationship has reflected that coaching is a complex social encounter with many roles and responsibilities for the coach. We have also seen that much of a coach’s development is not on a course where knowledge and learning are delivered and assessed formally but through the actual practice and experience of coaching, over time. This traditional model of coaching was the coach-athlete relationship in relative isolation. If we were to give this arrangement a label it would be ‘the escort system’. In this relationship there is an assumption that the coach has, or can acquire faster than the athlete, everything to support the athlete’s development. Given that an athlete’s development from starting athletics to achievement of their potential in athletics may commonly cover the passage from eleven years of age to the late twenties, we are talking about a relationship of sixteen or more years. Realistically, how many coaches can commit to a coach-athlete relationship of sixteen years, or more? There have to be alternatives to the escort system if athletes are not to drop out of athletics, should they out-grow the availability of the coach’s time, knowledge and skills, or the coach stops coaching. With the increasing understanding within the sport of the need for long term ‘Athlete Development’, coaches are aware that they should prepare the athletes that they are currently coaching to either be transferred from them to another coach at some time, or to be still coached by them but in a partnership arrangement with another coach. The coach-athlete relationship can be based on one of three models, or a combination of these as the coach and athlete move through their developmental pathways: zz The Escort System - the coach escorts the athlete from the moment the athlete commences in athletics to the athlete’s retirement from the sport zz The Partnership System - the coach recognises that they cannot meet all the needs of the athlete and works together with a more experienced coach to meet the athlete’s needs zz The Transfer System - the coach transfers the athlete to another coach as the athlete moves through the educational, institute or club system or when the coach recognises that they can no longer meet the needs of the athlete. Some countries have an automatic, education-based transfer system for the coach-athlete relationship within their schools and colleges. In the United States of America, for example, a child starts their athletics in the Junior High School and receives coaching before moving to a different coach at High School. The athlete then moves to another coach as they compete at University, before the final transition to their post- Introduction to Coaching – The Official IAAF Guide to Coaching Athletics 12 DeVELOPING A Coaching Philosophy graduate situation with frequently another coach. In the United States that is simply the way the coach- athlete system is structured. No Junior High School or High School coach expects to keep coaching an athlete once they have left their school. Athletes naturally moving, or transferring, from one coach to another may not be the perfect system but it does develop a flexibility of approach for both athletes and coaches. And it is not only the athletes who can ‘transfer’. Coaches can easily choose to move their situations professionally. There are, however, potential problems to having a transfer system for coaches and athletes. A coach may be the most knowledgeable ever, the coach might have the best technical skills ever but if they cannot build and develop a relationship with an athlete they cannot coach effectively. An effective coach has the skill and ability to nurture and grow the coach-athlete relationship, a relationship that has to be mutually acceptable. This relationship has to be the ‘right fit’. It should not be imposed, if the long term needs of the coach and athlete are to be respected. The coach-athlete relationship has to be the ‘right fit’ Many coaches in athletics do their coaching in a volunteer capacity in their own time. It is possible that a coach can have a ‘real’ job, a ‘real’ career, and still provide a ‘professional’ role in their volunteer coaching. Athletics cannot afford to pay all coaches a salary, nor can athletics currently afford to employ enough salaried coaches to take over and ‘produce’ all the stars. Volunteer coaches have played, and will continue to play, a vital part in the development of athletes. As a foundation for success there should be mutual respect between coaches receiving financial remuneration and volunteer coaches. In the IAAF ‘athlete-centred’ model, the coach-athlete relationship is at the centre of the athletes’ support network. The IAAF’s competence-based coach education scheme encourages coaches to work together and also to support each other. The way forward for athletics is to share coaching expertise with an open- minded, problem-solving approach. All coaches should recognise that there are different personal coaching systems and that the effective coach knows when to move from one to another. The escort, partnership and transfer systems each have strengths and weaknesses, it is identifying which is best for a particular athlete and coach at a particular time that is the key to success. Introduction to Coaching – The Official IAAF Guide to Coaching Athletics  1 DeVELOPING A Coaching PhilosophY 13 The IAAF Code of Ethics for Coaches In this chapter we have read that each coach is capable of developing their own coaching philosophy. This is true and all coaches are encouraged to take the time to identify and develop this philosophy. But the philosophy should also be consistent with what is acceptable within the ‘community of athletics’. To help guide coaches, the IAAF has published a Code of Ethics for Coaches. A summary of this code is reproduced in the back of this book on page 215. All coaches should ensure that their personal coaching philosophy is not only allowed to develop but that it continues to agree with and is consistent with the IAAF Code. Drugs in Athletics One of the greatest threats to fair competition in all sports is the taking of drugs designed to artificially enhance performance. These drugs are banned world-wide by national rules, by all international sport governing bodies and by the rules of the World Anti-Doping Agency, WADA. Prohibited drugs are a form of cheating and can produce long term medical problems for the athletes who use them. Athletics is taking the most active measures to remove drugs from training and competition through education of coaches and athletes, testing of athletes and, finally, punishment of offenders. Drugs are a symptom of the ‘win at all costs’ philosophy and of ignorance on the part of the coach and athlete. The majority of successful coaches around the world have a well developed, balanced philosophy and use well planned, long term training programmes. This philosophy places athlete development first and produces performances at the highest international levels without drugs. There would be no use of drugs if all coaches followed in words and actions the “Athletes first, winning second” philosophy. Paula Radcliffe - Marathon world record holder and vocal opponent to drugs and doping in sport Introduction to Coaching – The Official IAAF Guide to Coaching Athletics 14 DeVELOPING A Coaching Philosophy Discussion Topics Get together with another coach and ask each other the following questions. Try to answer briefly in one or two sentences. zz Why do you coach? zz How would you like your athletes to describe you? zz What coaching style do you think you mostly use? zz What is the most important area for you to develop to become a better coach? zz Give examples of the “Athletes first, winning second” philosophy at work in athletics. Work together with another coach or group of coaches to discuss the following statements and questions. There are no absolute correct or incorrect answers and you should be open to the views of others. zz “The best way to control drug use is through better education of coaches and athletes.” zz A new drug is discovered that is not on the IAAF list of banned substances. The side effects of the drug are not known, but it is said to give an athlete a 10% improvement in performance. Would you give this drug to the athletes you coach? zz “You cannot be successful in international competition without using banned substances.” zz An athlete you have coached for five years has made great improvement this season. It is now one week before your national championships. A reliable friend of the athlete confides in you that they have been taking anabolic steroids for the past 8 months. What actions would you take? zz “The best thing for athletics would be if coaches and athletes could use any drug that they wished.” Introduction to Coaching – The Official IAAF Guide to Coaching Athletics  15 2 Developing THE SKILLS OF COACHING Introduction to Coaching – The Official IAAF Guide to Coaching Athletics 16 DeVELOPING THE SKILLS OF COACHING Introduction to Coaching – The Official IAAF Guide to Coaching Athletics  2 DeVELOPING THE SKILLS OF COACHING 17 Developing the Skills of Coaching The process of coaching can be simply stated as a process of planning what you are going to do, doing what you have planned to do and then reviewing what you have done. This ‘Plan-Do-Review’ process of coaching is cyclical, repeated over and over, and involves the skills of planning, doing and reviewing. Many coaches when questioned say that they enjoy the ‘doing’ part of coaching most but all three areas combine to provide the coach and athlete with the best possible environment for progress and development. The Cyclical Process of Coaching In this chapter we will focus on the ‘doing’ of your coaching and look at the basic skills that the beginner or novice coach needs to develop. The Basic Skills of Coaching When a coach first begins to work with athletes he tends to be initially focussed on developing his competence in the ‘doing’ of his coaching. With this competence comes confidence in working with athletes. This book focuses on the competence of ‘doing’ your coaching by identifying the five basic skills of coaching that all coaches should use as a foundation for their work with athletes. These are shown in the following diagram. Introduction to Coaching – The Official IAAF Guide to Coaching Athletics 18 DeVELOPING THE SKILLS OF COACHING The Coaching Process PLAN 1 Build & Develop Relationships 1 Build and Develop Relationships DO 22 Instruct Instruct and&Explain Explain REVIEW The 5 Basic THE 5 BASIC SKILLS 3 Demonstrate 3 Demonstrate Skills OF of COACHING 4 Observe and Analyse Coaching 4 Observation & Analysis 5 Feedback 5 Feedback The Coaching Process and the place of the Five Basic Skills of Coaching IAAF CECS Level II Coaching Theory 3 These five basic skills of coaching can also be represented on the fingers and thumb of a ‘coaching hand’. In this section you will be introduced to additional ‘coaching hands’, one for each of the five basic coaching skills. The statements at each finger and thumb of these coaching hands will act as ‘aide memoires’ for the key points which contribute to the coach gaining competence in each of the five basic skills. The Five Skills of Coaching Provide Demonstrations Provide Instruction Observe & Analyse & Explanation Provide Feedback Build & Develop Relationships Safe Environment * * The Coach must always create a safe environment © Peter J L Thompson 2007 The Coaching Hand showing the Five Basic Skills of Coaching Introduction to Coaching – The Official IAAF Guide to Coaching Athletics  2 DeVELOPING THE SKILLS OF COACHING 19 Building and Developing Relationships – the Primary Skill of Coaching It does not matter how much knowledge a coach has, what qualifications they hold or what other skills of coaching they possess – if a coach cannot build and develop effective relationships with athletes, he cannot be an effective coach. This is the primary skill of coaching. When you are in the presence of your athletes it is important that they view you as having an appropriate confidence at all times. This confidence will be reflected by the way in which you stand in front of them, communicate with them and how you are seen to communicate with others. If you are not familiar with the athletes you are coaching, it is important to smile and make eye contact. It is often beneficial to establish eye contact before making an important point, even if you know your athletes very well. If the sun is bright and you or your athletes are wearing sunglasses, it may be helpful to remove these sunglasses before speaking. If you are working with a group of athletes it is very easy to fall into the trap of focusing your attention on one, or only a few, of the athletes in the group. This might be because it is always easy to identify and feel comfortable with the best performers in any group. But this approach is not consistent with the philosophy of ‘athletes first, winning second’. Any athlete striving to win and not winning should be as valued, and feel as valued, as much as an athlete who can win with ease. The coach should also understand that each athlete expects a different amount of attention. Some athletes in a group may seek all the coach’s attention while others may seek none at all, due to shyness or lack of confidence. It is important then that the coach provides a balance. By showing interest in and respect for all athletes in any group the coach sends out a message that each individual is of equal worth. This helps the attention-seekers to understand the needs of others and builds confidence in the withdrawn or shy individuals. A coach should, at the very least, know the names of each athlete that they are coaching. This is easy if you are regularly coaching the same athletes but less easy if you are working in a situation where you are continually coaching athletes who are ‘new’ to you. In these situations you can develop ways to remember the athletes by, for example, repeating their names in your head each time you look at them during a coaching session. If there are just too many or you simply cannot remember their names, then using name tags can be useful. Every individual likes to be recognised by their name and this is true for all athletes as well. Introduction to Coaching – The Official IAAF Guide to Coaching Athletics 20 DeVELOPING THE SKILLS OF COACHING Build and Develop Relationships 3. Show interest in and respect for each athlete 2. Smile and make 4. Use athlete’s eye contact names 5. Coach the athlete 1. Be confident as rather than ‘coach a coach in front of athletics’ your athletes Safety © Peter J L Thompson 2007 The Coaching Hand – Build and Develop Relationships Beginner coaches have many areas to develop as they begin to coach. Some like to collect a great deal of knowledge about athletics and focus their attention on this knowledge – the ‘what’ of athletics. More effective coaches also develop their knowledge but use the knowledge as a foundation for the ‘how’ they do their coaching – the five basic skills of coaching. It is important that each coach sees and recognises the unique needs of each individual athlete in front of them. If the coach has a focus on the knowledge, the ‘what’ of athletics, they may miss identifying the needs of the athlete. That is why the effective coach uses their knowledge to meet the needs of each individual. They really do, “coach the athlete rather than ‘coach athletics’”. Providing Instruction and Explanation – the ‘Telling’ Skill of Coaching Coaches need effective communication skills. They need to be able to both give and receive information. Coaches need to do this with not just with athletes but with their parents, partners, other coaches, officials, administrators and all the other people who are involved in athletics. Providing instruction and explanation is, for the coach, the ‘giving’ or ‘telling’ part of communication and is necessary for conveying information and for organising people and groups. But coaches should never forget that good communication is always a two-way process. When coaches want to convey information or organise they can ‘tell’ the information. This telling is very useful when time is limited, when something needs to be done in a specific way, when coaching a large or unfamiliar group and particularly when there are important safety considerations. Coaches use ‘Instruction and Explanation’ to organise athletes or to convey information, such as about the session to follow. Introduction to Coaching – The Official IAAF Guide to Coaching Athletics  2 DeVELOPING THE SKILLS OF COACHING 21 In providing effective instruction and explanation you should always start by planning in advance what you are going to say. This should be a brief, clear way to convey what you want. Try to plan what you are going to say using language that the athletes will understand easily. Before you start speaking, gain attention. Athletes must be ready to listen to you before you start to speak. There are a number of ways of gaining attention such as a whistle, a raised hand or simply being silent as you look at all the athletes. Which ever method is used it is important to have the full attention of all athletes. For this reason, try to eliminate anything which will interfere or distract the listeners. To maintain this attention with a group you should make sure that they are placed so that all can hear and see what is happening. Face learners away from the sun and other visual distractions so that concentration is directed at you, the coach. Keep what you are saying to a minimum and express the content in simple, jargon-free, language. Be sure that you are sensitive to the needs of differing cultures, genders and abilities. If you are working with athletes and need to organise them into groups, think about the needs and abilities of the athletes and the activity to be done and group athletes accordingly. For example, a single group of nine athletes long jumping would jump much less than three groups of three jumping from the side of the long jump pit. With three groups it might also be possible to have these grouped according to their stage of learning. Provide Instruction and Explanation 3. Keep it Simple 2. Gain Attention 4. Group athletes according to numbers, ability and activity 5. Check for 1. Think about what understanding ** you’re going to say Safety ** Check for understanding by asking the athletes questions and having them say what they are going to do. © Peter J L Thompson 2007 The Coaching Hand – Provide Instruction and Explanation The final key point is something many coaches forget and only realise when the athletes do not do what the coach expected. Always remember to check for understanding. Do not simply ask the athletes if they understand for most will inevitably say, “yes”, whether or not they have actually understood. Check for Introduction to Coaching – The Official IAAF Guide to Coaching Athletics 22 DeVELOPING THE SKILLS OF COACHING understanding by asking questions and have them tell you what they are going to do, or to repeat what you have said. Providing Demonstrations – the ‘Showing’ Skill of Coaching For the coach, demonstrations can be a way of providing a visual picture of a technique or a drill. It does not mean that every coach should be able to demonstrate everything in athletics themselves. It does mean that every coach should be able to ‘provide a demonstration’, which may mean that they physically do it or that they provide the demonstration through other means. Before using a demonstration it is important to decide: zz the purpose of the demonstration zz what type of demonstration you will use zz who should provide the demonstration Demonstrations can be used for a number of purposes. They may be used with a new skill to introduce and show the whole skill. They may act as a ‘cue’ for an already learned skill. They may provide a simplified model of a skill or be used simply to motivate or inspire. They may also be used to illustrate a particular point. For example, instead of giving feedback after watching an athlete, the coach does the demonstration again but this time emphasising the correction to any observed fault. Demonstration has been shown to be a very important tool for helping novices in the first stage of learning when they are trying to gain a picture of what is required. Also, young athletes who are learning a new movement tend to very good at imitating the movement if they can see it demonstrated. This demonstration must be both: zz accurate – provides a correct image, one that provides an accurate demonstration of the technical model zz appropriate – to the level of the athlete, one that provides an image that is possible for the learner to copy. Checking the purpose of the demonstration is a good way of ensuring that a demonstration is the right coaching aid and also helps to determine the type of demonstration required. Types of Demonstration Demonstrations can be live, provided on video or by still pictures or photographs. All provide a visual image and each has advantages and disadvantages: zz A live demonstration can be quickly organised, can be viewed from different angles and can be adapted readily to the needs of the group. For example, just one part of the action can be repeated for emphasis. zz With a video you know exactly what image you are going to show but a live demonstration cannot be guaranteed in this way. It can also provide a more accurate image that can be replicated over and over again without fatigue. It can also be viewed in slow motion or ‘frozen’ to analyse a specific movement or position. However, it takes time to organise and is not always easy to have Introduction to Coaching – The Official IAAF Guide to Coaching Athletics  2 DeVELOPING THE SKILLS OF COACHING 23 available where it is needed. zz A still picture or photograph may be of limited value because it provides only a snap shot of the action. However, when used as a sequence of ‘stills’ they can be used as a quick and easy reminder of key positions. Wall charts have long been used in training facilities as an ever-present reminder of technique. Video can also be used very effectively for providing feedback to both coaches and athletes but this use is not for ‘providing a demonstration’ and using video in this way should not be considered in this section. If you decide to use a live demonstration, you need to consider who demonstrates, and can provide an accurate image. If you can confidently and competently demonstrate the action accurately in accordance with the technical model, you may choose to demonstrate it yourself. You can be sure of your own performance and can stress the necessary parts. As long as you provide an accurate image of what you are asking them to do, this is good. Alternatively, you can choose to use an athlete. The athlete may come from within the group or, more usually, from outside the group using a more experienced athlete. Always remember to have the athlete demonstrate to you in private the skill you want to see before you bring the athlete in front of the group. The advantages of using an athlete is that it can be highly motivating, may be clearly achievable for the rest of the group and you are able to stand away from the action and identify the one or two key points. However, unless you have checked before, you may not have an accurate model and the athlete may not be able to reproduce it consistently for you when you ask. You need to decide the best option to meet the purpose of the demonstration. The coach may use an athlete to provide the demonstration A coach may provide a demonstration Introduction to Coaching – The Official IAAF Guide to Coaching Athletics 24 DeVELOPING THE SKILLS OF COACHING The following table provides a summary of the advantages and disadvantages of different demonstration methods: Demonstration Coach Coach Coach uses athlete Method: uses video demonstrates to demonstrate Advantages  Unlimited replay  Quickly set up  Quickly set up  Accurate, expert model  View different angles  Physically able  Slow motion and freeze  Adaptable to group  Identification with and by frame  Trust and influence athletes  Consistent image  ‘Coping’ model  Experienced model  View different angles  Adaptable to group Disadvantages  Unrealistic model  May not be physically  May intimidate – no  Passive involvement able identification (physically)  Possible inaccurate  Personality clash – no  Two dimensional model identification  Only camera angle  Varies each time  Possible inaccurate model  Takes time and  You are not in control of  Varies each time equipment the group When and with  Can be used at all levels  Very useful when  Using a senior athlete whom to use at all stages of learning. introducing a skill to with junior/novice group Usually before a session athletes in the earliest  Athlete from group to  Use normal speed - slow stages of learning demonstrate learning – speed - normal speed  During a session beginning /end of session Comparison of methods of demonstration Once you have carefully decided the purpose and type of demonstration and have begun the coaching session you will need to position the athletes so that all can see and hear the demonstration. It is important that the athletes are far enough away from the demonstration for them to see the whole movement. Inexperienced coaches tend to provide the demonstration too close to the athletes. Experienced coaches usually provide the demonstration at least 15 metres or more from the athletes. The next step is to focus the athlete’s attention on one or two key points. Be careful as you develop as a coach and are gaining more technical information about each event that you still need to provide only one or two key points for the athletes to focus on in the demonstration. The coaching skill now is to select the relevant one or two points. Whichever type of demonstration is used, the coach should permit the athletes to view it in silence, without interruption by speaking to them. In a demonstration, athletes need to focus on one ‘information receiving channel’ and this should be the visual channel, what they are seeing in front of them. Also, if a coach is actually doing the demonstration themselves they will not be in the correct body position if they turn to speak to the athletes while doing the movement. Introduction to Coaching – The Official IAAF Guide to Coaching Athletics  2 DeVELOPING THE SKILLS OF COACHING 25 Provide Demonstrations 3. Focus on one or two key points 2. Position so all 4. Silent demo - repeated can see and hear several times from several directions 5. Ask, “would you like to try that, or 1. Decide purpose would you like to see and type of it again?” demonstration Safety © Peter J L Thompson 2007 The Coaching Hand – Provide Demonstrations Demonstrations should be repeated at least two to three times from several directions. The ‘several directions’ permits the athletes to see different things and the coach should identify the one or two key points for each direction so that the athletes are focussing their attention on these points. For example, it is difficult to view the head position and where the eyes are looking from the side. Watching from the front makes this easily visible to all. If possible, the demonstrator should move to provide the ‘several directions’. If this is not possible due to equipment, such as in the hurdles, or safety, such as in the throws, then the group of athletes should move to different viewing positions. When you provide a demonstration to beginners you cannot be aware of where their learning is and whether they have enough of a visual image to want to try it. Perhaps the best thing for the coach to do after having demonstrated several times is to ask the athletes a simple question, “Would you like to try that, or would you like to see it again?” The response of the athletes will tell the coach immediately where they are in their preparation to learn. If the response is, “Let me try it”, they can move straight to practice the new skill. Frequently, however, an athlete will say, “Let me see it again please”. From this response the demonstration should be repeated again, a few times, before the coach re-asks the question. An advantage of using this type of question is that it is athlete-centred and motivates the athletes because they are involved with the coach in setting the pace of their learning. If the demonstration is being used for a purpose other than introducing a new skill, such as a cue for an already learned skill, then this question need not be used as the athletes should already have a clear visual image of what they need to do. It is also worth remembering that unplanned demonstrations can occur whenever you are coaching. All athletes, and particularly less experienced athletes, can learn a great deal by simply observing, copying and practising in the presence of more experienced and skilful athletes. Be careful though that the athletes they Introduction to Coaching – The Official IAAF Guide to Coaching Athletics 26 DeVELOPING THE SKILLS OF COACHING observe show correct technique, as less experienced athletes will not be able to tell the correct movements from the incorrect ones. Observe and Analyse – the ‘Seeing’ Skill of Coaching Observation and analysis becomes increasingly important as your coaching skills develop and as your knowledge of the specific events and biomechanical principles develops. When this happens you now have detailed technical models which help you to focus your observation and provide a basis for your subsequent analysis. But even the beginner coach can begin to observe and analyse basic principles without knowing the specifics of an event. For example, was the athlete’s movement from slow to fast, was it from low to high, which part of the body started moving first? Focusing on a phase or body part can assist observations, whether it is a novice coach or an experienced coach who is watching an athlete. By breaking the action down in this way it is possible to see the parts in real time, at full speed. When you begin to learn about an event, the technical model for the event can guide your observations by identifying the phases and also the motion, or not, of the body parts through the action. Technical models may include details on: zz how you might break down the action to improve your observation zz the biomechanical principles that permit the athlete to develop optimum force zz specific coaching points and tips on what to observe. All this information assists your observation and analysis. For example, in biomechanics you may learn simple information on the ‘Law of Reaction’, Newton’s Third Law of Motion which provides a clear explanation of the need to drive back forcefully against the starting blocks in order to maximise the speed forwards out of the blocks. Similarly, by understanding a little about projectiles and the importance of the speed and angle of release, you can focus your attention on this as the implement is released in any throwing event. Some knowledge of rotations in the air helps you to understand how to reduce forward rotation after take-off in the long and triple jumps. By studying the simple mechanical principles you will be able to focus your observation more easily on the key factors that will influence efficient movement whether it is in running, walking, jumping or throwing. The coaching points will also make better sense when you understand basic mechanical principles. Think for a moment about observing any athlete carrying out a skill. Think, now, of an athlete who is learning a new skill. Is each attempt by this beginner likely to be same as the previous attempt or will there be great differences between one attempt and another? It is because there is this variation between attempts that a coach should always observe the action several times and possibly from several directions to view different things. If the athlete is very skilled it may appear that there is little difference between one, two or three repetitions of the skill but there will be small significant differences and a coach should still observe several times before proceeding. Always remember, the less skilled the athlete, the less likely the action will be consistent each time the movement is executed. When you are observing think about how near or far you are from the athlete. Inexperienced coaches tend to stand too close to the athletes. Think for a moment about watching a jet aircraft flying high Introduction to Coaching – The Official IAAF Guide to Coaching Athletics  2 DeVELOPING THE SKILLS OF COACHING 27 in the sky. It appears to be moving across the sky slowly and yet it is moving at several hundreds of kilometres or miles an hour. Imagine now that same jet moving at the same speed just ten metres above your head. The speed now would seem incredible and you would hardly catch sight of the plane as it passed. The same principle is true as you observe athletes. The further you are from the athletes, the more the action is ‘slowed down’ and the easier you can see both the movement and the rhythm of their movement. For this reason, some experienced coaches will occasionally sit as far away as the top of the stands in a stadium to observe their athletes as they practice. Always remember when you coach that you ‘observe’ with your ears as much as with your eyes. All of athletics is involved with rhythmic movements. You can see these rhythms of movement with your eyes but frequently it is the ears that really let you ‘observe’ and confirm whether the rhythm is correct or not. Observe & Analyse 3. Compare with your technical model 2. Observe several times 4. Identify what’s correct as from several directions well as what’s incorrect 5. Decide what action to take, if any 1. Break the action down into phases Safety © Peter J L Thompson 2007 The Coaching Hand – Observe and Analyse Having now observed the athlete several times the coach must make a comparison with what they have seen and the technical model. It is as important for the coach to note what matches the model, what may be correct, as it is to note what is different from the model, what may be incorrect. Too often coaches focus their analysis only on ‘faults’ and ‘fault correction’, rather than identifying and building on what is correct. If the inexperienced coach only focuses on what is incorrect, the athletes often lose what they were doing correctly and become increasingly frustrated as they fail to progress. Experienced coaches frequently find that by focusing on what is correct the parts that are incorrect naturally rectify themselves. By focusing on what is correct the coach builds a solid movement foundation and, additionally, builds confidence and increases motivation in the athlete. Introduction to Coaching – The Official IAAF Guide to Coaching Athletics 28 DeVELOPING THE SKILLS OF COACHING Having made your analysis and identified what is correct as well as what is incorrect, stop to decide what to do next. You may choose to either: zz Provide a demonstration emphasising the point you want the athlete to work on next, such as, “Watch this demonstration and note what my arms are doing.” – This is particularly useful when the athlete is in the early learning stages and still trying to get a mental picture of what to do. zz Provide feedback – see the next coaching hand for ‘Providing Feedback’ zz Do nothing at present, perhaps ask to see it some more times, “Let me see it again.” What you decide to do will be based on your coaching experience meeting the needs of the athlete, taking into account their energy levels, motivation, concentration, confidence and skill. Many people watch athletics as spectators, but coaches observe athletics in a different way. They want to help the athlete develop and so analyse their observations to understand the actions of the athlete. This combination of observation and analysis is given the term the ‘coaching eye’. For a beginner coach you should practice observing before you analyse. As your coaching skills develop the combining together of these two actions of observing and analysing will become increasingly automatic. It is often said that good coaches watch and listen more than they speak - good observation skills are essential to the effective coach. Providing Feedback – the ‘Teaching’ Skill of Coaching Feedback is essential to learning. Without feedback the athlete will not know where to focus their attention to improve their performance. There are two main sources of feedback available to the athlete and these are: zz The naturally available feedback from within the athlete as a result of making a movement. This feedback is sometimes referred to as intrinsic feedback and is always present for the athlete but they may not always be aware of it. zz Additional feedback to the athlete that can be provided by some external source such as from a coach, other athletes, spectators, mirrors or from watching a video replay. This feedback is sometimes referred to as extrinsic feedback. Both types of feedback are important and their relative importance depends partially on the stage of learning of the athlete. For example, at the initial stage of learning the athlete does not have a clear idea of what the movement should look and feel like. Consequently, the intrinsic feedback will be less usable for the athlete. The skill of providing feedback, if done well, will provide the type of extrinsic feedback which also helps to develop the athlete’s intrinsic feedback. It is, firstly, important to reinforce the need for a coach to observe several times before providing feedback. The reasons for this were emphasised when considering the skill of ‘observe and analyse’ and include identifying what are consistent actions against one-time actions. This means that the coach should provide their extrinsic feedback intermittently, not all the time. Constant feedback from a coach may produce rapid short term gains in athlete performance but slows down long term learning by not developing the athlete’s ability to use intrinsic feedback. Constant extrinsic feedback can also make the athlete totally coach-dependent and not able to function in training or competition without the coach. The athlete- Introduction to Coaching – The Official IAAF Guide to Coaching Athletics  2 DeVELOPING THE SKILLS OF COACHING 29 centred approach to coaching encourages the athlete’s self-analysis, self-determination and self-correction through their well developed awareness and use of intrinsic feedback. It gives ownership and responsibility for performance to the athlete. Following the several observations, the coach should focus on what the athlete did correctly. Try to be specific when you do this and provide usable information. For example, “that was good” holds no real information. It might be better to say, “that was a much better effort because you held your posture well throughout the movement.” Raising the athlete’s awareness of what is happening through questioning can be very useful, even for a complete novice in the first stage of learning. As the athlete progresses into the second stage of learning, however, they have a clear picture in their mind and also a feel for the movement. Coaches can encourage the use of intrinsic feedback for all athletes through careful questioning. For example, “what were you aware of at take-off?” “tell me what you saw when you were doing that sprint drill?” “what did you feel at release in those last three throws?” The coach may use follow-up questions to raise the athlete’s awareness even more and so help them to make better use of their intrinsic feedback. Always remember to delay giving any additional extrinsic feedback until the athlete has had time to process the intrinsic feedback. Provide Feedback 3. Ask questions to raise self-awareness 2. Identify and reinforce what the athlete did correctly 4. Limit to one or two key, important points 5. Keep it positive 1. Observe several times before giving feedback Safety © Peter J L Thompson 2007 The Coaching Hand – Providing Feedback As you develop your experience and knowledge as a coach it is easy to see more and more correct and incorrect things. The coach now has to use his judgement to decide on providing feedback for just one, or two, key important points. These should reinforce the most important correct action and providing correction for the most important incorrect action to help the athlete make progress. This should be expressed briefly in simple, understandable language followed by further practice. Introduction to Coaching – The Official IAAF Guide to Coaching Athletics 30 DeVELOPING THE SKILLS OF COACHING How you provide your extrinsic feedback will set the learning climate for your athletes. You should always be honest but express this honesty positively to build each athlete’s confidence. For example, it might be better to say, “Try to really explode and extend your leg and ankle off the take-off board”, rather than, “Don’t be so rigid at take-off.” When some coaches hear that they should, “Keep it positive”, they feel they have to say to the athlete, “Well done”, “Good effort”, “Excellent!” regardless of whether the athlete has actually done something well or not. “Keep it positive” refers to the climate of practice that you create, not praising poor performance. Experienced coaches frequently sandwich criticisms between two positive statements, creating a so-called ‘praise sandwich’. Doing this means that the athletes are both motivated and also know what they have to do to improve. For example, “You really put a lot of effort into that last attempt”, a positive statement. Then, “Your arms were very passive as you sprinted. On these next attempts try to focus on your arm action and driving just the upper arms backwards, forcefully but relaxed”, some critical feedback. Finally, another positive statement “Keep this effort up and you will continue to make good progress in your sprinting.” Video can also be a very powerful source of extrinsic feedback for athletes. In training, it can provide an almost immediate source of objective feedback that can be watched repeatedly, as well as slowed down for more detailed analysis. Comparison with previous sessions and video of competition performances can clearly reveal the athlete’s progress. It is often said that, “Effective coaches are effective communicators”. The skill of communication is itself a foundation for the basic skills of coaching and all coaches should develop how they communicate. Introduction to Coaching – The Official IAAF Guide to Coaching Athletics  2 DeVELOPING THE SKILLS OF COACHING 31 Communication The Skill of Communication – the ‘Foundation’ of the Basic Skills of Coaching Communication is the two-way process of exchanging information between the athlete and coach, and assists motivation, goal setting and all skills learning. Success in coaching depends to a large extent on your ability to communicate effectively in a variety of situations and with people of all types and ages. Communication skills, like all skills, can be learned. Each individual has the potential to practice and improve their ability to communicate. Communication consists not only of sending messages but receiving them as well. Coaches tend to be very good in the sending area of communication but many times pay little attention to receiving. As we have seen, coaches need to have effective communication skills to be able to both give and receive information. Coaches need to do this with not just with athletes but with their parents, partners, other coaches, officials, administrators and all the other people who are involved in athletics. Most importantly, for coaches, the skill of effective communication is essential as a foundation for four of the five basic skills of coaching. These are: zz Build and develop relationships zz Provide instruction and explanation zz Provide demonstrations zz Provide feedback The skill of ‘Observe and Analyse’ is done ‘inside’ the coach and involves receiving sight and hearing information and analysing this information. But, since there is no ‘sending’ in this coaching skill, the skill of communication is not involved. Communication is not simply talking and listening. It also includes forms of non-verbal communication such as facial expressions, clothes and appearance and bodily posture. Verbal communication of sending and receiving is important. Non-verbal communication is of equal, if not more, importance as it has been estimated that over 70% of information between two people is carried non-verbally. Every message a person sends is composed of two parts, content and emotion. Content refers to the information in a message and emotion refers to the feelings you have about the message. The content is usually sent verbally and the emotion, non-verbally. Emotion can also be transmitted not by what you say but how you say it. How you say something includes the qualities of speech such as volume, tone and Introduction to Coaching – The Official IAAF Guide to Coaching Athletics 32 DeVELOPING THE SKILLS OF COACHING tempo. Choosing the correct speech pattern is one of the ways to make communication more effective. Sometimes the communication between an athlete and a coach is ineffective and there may be many reasons for this. The coach may not communicate what was intended, the message may be wrong for the situation or there may be a lack of the verbal and non-verbal skills to send the message. The athlete may not be paying attention to the coach or he may misunderstand the message that is sent. Ineffective communication is not always the fault of the coach, nor is it always a problem with the athlete. Usually problems in communication lie with both sides, the athlete and the coach. If the coach develops his communication skills many of these problems can be avoided. Perhaps you should ask yourself, “How do I communicate most of the time?” Assessing How You Communicate This exercise will help you think about how you are delivering your messages to your athletes. Fill in the circle you think most accurately reflects how you communicate most of the time. Be honest and answer as you really do communicate, not how you would like to communicate. Never Sometimes Often Think about what I am going to say before I speak Listen the same amount as I speak Think the athlete has something useful to say Use simple, appropriate language for the listener Clearly know how the athletes have interpreted what I have said I communicate consistently from day to day I encourage athletes to discuss things Check for understanding Listen well without planning what I am going to say next Am aware of my voice level and tone There is consistency between my voice and my body language Evaluating your Communication Skills Developing Effective Communication Skills The skill of communication is like any skill and can be improved by the correct practice. Evaluating your responses to the previous exercise can help you see any areas you need to improve. Effective communication involves the following skills: zz Learning to use your voice Introduction to Coaching – The Official IAAF Guide to Coaching Athletics  2 DeVELOPING THE SKILLS OF COACHING 33 zz Developing non-verbal skills zz Developing questioning skills zz Developing listening skills zz Developing and maintaining credibility Learning to Use Your Voice The attention that athletes give to a coach is not related to how loud he speaks. Altering the volume, tone and tempo of your voice are ways in which speech patterns can make communication more effective. Good coaches vary their voice patterns to maintain interest in what they are saying and to emphasise important points. It is sometimes useful, for example, to pause for a moment before saying something very important as this focuses the athletes’ attention on what is to follow the pause. Developing Non-Verbal Skills It has been said that non-verbal communication can convey over 70% of the information in a message. If the verbal message we are sending is correct and accurately sent it is essential that our non-verbal communication reinforces and is consistent with this verbal message. Coaches should be aware of how they communicate non-verbally in different situations and make necessary changes. Developing Questioning Skills Questioning is a really important part of the skill of communication. In coaching, it can be used for a number of purposes including: zz Getting to know your athletes, which is an essential part of building and developing relationships. This can help you to motivate them to stay involved in athletics,