Lecture Two: Political Ideologies PDF

LECTURE TWO POLITICAL IDEOLOGIES CCSS4007 Introduction to Political Science Dr. Kenneth Tsz Fung, NG  What are political ideologies, and how are they classified? Liberalism Conservati...

LECTURE TWO POLITICAL IDEOLOGIES CCSS4007 Introduction to Political Science Dr. Kenneth Tsz Fung, NG  What are political ideologies, and how are they classified? Liberalism Conservatism Socialism and its variants Challenges to the dominant ideologies Summary: Mapping political ideologies along one left-right axis Agenda WHAT ARE POLITICAL IDEOLOGIES, AND HOW ARE THEY CLASSIFIED? WHAT ARE POLITICAL IDEOLOGIES? Ideologies can be defined as coherent sets of ideas that provide the basis for organized political action. These ideas may aim to preserve, modify, or overthrow the existing system of power relationships.  NOT rational attempts to understand political systems. They cement together movements, parties, and revolutionary groups, providing an ideological motivation—a cause to believe in—that inspires individuals to fight and endure sacrifices. They should be understood as fluid sets of ideas, not rigid, closed systems, often intersecting at various points. ALL IDEOLOGIES THEREFORE… Offer an account of the existing order, often in the form of a worldview that interprets existing power relationships; Provide a model of a desired future, presenting a vision of what constitutes a ‘Good Society’; Outline how political change can and should be implemented. Ideology serves as a framework or reference, legitimizing and guiding political actions. THE LEFT-RIGHT POLITICAL SPECTRUM The terms ‘left’ and ‘right’ originated during the French Revolution of 1789. Members of the National Assembly were divided into two camps: supporters of the king, who sat to the right of the president (representing the estates of the clergy and nobility), and supporters of the revolution, who sat to his left (representing the inferior). The political ‘left’ typically advocates for change and challenges the established order, while the ‘right’ tends to focus on preservation, particularly upholding traditional values and norms. THE LEFT-RIGHT POLITICAL SPECTRUM In contemporary politics, the linear political spectrum serves to summarise various attitudes towards the economy and the role of the state. It distinguishes between different economic systems, such as capitalism and socialism, and outlines divergent views on the level of state intervention in the economy, individual liberties, social equality, and more. Liberty Authority Equality Hierarchy Fraternity Order The “Left”: The “Right”: Rights Duties Supports Favours the Progress intervention and market and Tradition Reform collectivism individualism Reaction Internationalism Nationalism THE LEFT-RIGHT POLITICAL SPECTRUM Left Right Ideology Equality (welfare, equality of Freedom (self-sufficiency, equality of outcome) opportunity) Government Role More (taxation, regulation) Less (Privatization, free market) Perspective Internationalization (Multiculturalism) Nationalism (anti-immigration) Values Post-materialism (incorporation of less Traditional (family, religion, law and traditional ideas, e.g., order) environmentalism, feminism, LGBT) Parties Communist, Socialist, Labor, Social Liberal, National, Christian Democratic Democratic, Conservative In the post-WWII period, an alternative, horseshoe-shaped political spectrum was developed. This model sought to highlight the totalitarian tendencies common to both fascism and communism. To address the inconsistencies of the conventional left-right spectrum, a two- dimensional spectrum was proposed. This model added a vertical authoritarian-libertarian axis, allowing positions on economic organisation to be separated from those related to civil liberties. LIBERALISM LIBERALISM Liberalism is often regarded as the prevailing ideology of the industrialised West. As a ‘meta-ideology’, liberalism lays down the grounds on which ideological debate can take place. It emerged from the breakdown of feudalism and the growth of a market-based, capitalist society in the 17th and 18th centuries. Early liberalism reflected the aspirations of a rising industrial middle class, and hence, liberalism and capitalism have been closely linked.  Freedom ELEMENTS OF LIBERALISM Consent Toleration Reason Equality Constitutiona Individualism lism INDIVIDUALISM Individualism is the core principle of liberal ideology. It reflects a belief in the supreme importance of the human individual as opposed to any social group or collective body. In this view, human beings are seen primarily as individuals. It aims to construct a society within which individuals can flourish and develop, each pursuing ‘the good’ as he/she defines it, to the best of his/her abilities. Liberalism is often viewed as morally neutral, laying down a set of rules that allow individuals to make their own moral decisions. FREEDOM Individual freedom, or liberty, is the central value of liberalism, which is given priority over equality, justice, or authority. The objective of liberalism is to ensure that each individual can act as they please or choose. However, liberals also advocate for ‘freedom under the law’, recognising that one person’s freedom may be a threat to the freedom of others.  The state can be seen as a ‘necessary evil’ that prevents individuals from violating the rights and liberties of others. Liberals endorse the ideal that individuals should enjoy the maximum possible freedom consistent with the same level of freedom for all. REASON Liberals believe that the world has a rational structure that can be uncovered through the exercise of human reason and by critical enquiry. They maintain that individuals, as the best judges of their own interests, are able to make wise judgments on their own behalf. Furthermore, liberals have faith in progress and the capacity of human beings to settle their differences through debate and argument, rather than resorting to bloodshed and war. EQUALITY Liberals uphold the principle that individuals are ‘born equal’, a belief that is reflected in their commitment to equal rights.  This includes legal equality, or ‘equality before the law’, and political equality, characterised by ‘one person, one vote; one vote, one value’. However, liberals do not endorse social equality or equality of outcome because people possess varying levels of talent and willingness to work. Instead, they favour equality of opportunity, aiming to give all individuals an equal chance to realise their unique potential.  This is consistent with the principle of meritocracy, where merit is seen as a combination of talent and effort. TOLERATION Liberals believe in the principle of toleration as both a guarantee of individual liberty and a means of social enrichment.  People should permit others to think, speak, and act in ways they might personally disapprove of. They view pluralism in the form of moral, cultural, and political diversity as positively healthy.  With all beliefs tested in a free market of ideas, it promotes debate and intellectual progress. Liberals believe in the balance and harmony between rival views and interests, thereby discounting the idea of irreconcilable conflict. CONSENT From the liberal perspective, authority and social relationships should always be based on consent or willing agreement.  Government must be based on the ‘consent of the governed’.  Liberals thus favour representation and democracy. Social structures should be formed through contracts willingly entered into by individuals intent on pursuing their own self-interests. Authority - understood as the psychological ability to compel others to obey - emerges ‘from below’ and is always rooted in legitimacy, an attitude in people’s minds that the rule is rightful. CONSTITUTIONALISM Liberals assert the notion that ‘Power tends to corrupt’. Liberals believe in limited government due to fears that unchecked government power could lead to tyranny against the individual. They seek to prevent this in several ways:  By fragmenting government power;  By creating checks and balances among the various institutions of government;  Through the establishment of a codified constitution that includes a bill of rights, defining the relationship between the state and the individual. CONSERVATISM  CONSERVATISM Conservatism emerged in the late 18th and early 19th century as a reaction against the rapid pace of economic and political changes brought about by the French Revolution.  It was a defence of the traditional social order and was often seen as autocratic and reactionary, rejecting any notion of reform. However, in the 19th century, figures like Edmund Burke introduced a new dimension to conservatism with the Edmund Burke was a UK statesman and political philosophy of ‘Change in order to conserve.’ theorist, often regarded as  This allowed the ideology to embrace the cause of social the philosophical founder of reform under the paternalistic banner of ‘One Nation’. modern conservatism. CONSERVATISM From the 1970s onward, traditional conservatism came under pressure due to the emergence of the New Right. This represented an anti-statist and anti- paternalistic brand of conservatism that drew heavily on classical liberal themes and values. The New Right advocated for a strong state to maintain social order, while also promoting Ronald Reagan, the 40th President of minimal state interference in the economy to the United States and a leading ensure its freedom. figure in the Republican Party, was a pivotal promoter of the New Right. CONSERVATISM The New Right represents an attempt to combine two distinct political traditions. This fusion has often been referred to as ‘neoliberalism’ and ‘neoconservatism’.  They stood against the concept of the ‘Nanny state’, arguing that it bred a culture of dependence and undermined freedom, particularly the freedom of choice in the marketplace.  They asserted that individuals should provide for their own welfare through hard work and savings.  They aimed to ‘roll back the frontiers of the state’, with the belief that unregulated market capitalism would deliver efficiency.  Organicism ELEMENTS OF CONSERVATISM Hierarchy Human Imperfection Authority Property Tradition Pragmatism TRADITION Conservatism is closely linked to a desire to conserve. This sentiment is closely tied to the perceived virtues of tradition and respect for established customs and institutions that have endured through time. It is believed that tradition reflects the accumulated wisdom of the past, and institutions and practices that have stood the test of time should be preserved for the benefit of both living and future generations. The preservation and respect for tradition not only promote stability and security but also provide individuals with a sense of social and historical belonging. PRAGMATISM Conservatism emphasises the limitations of human rationality in the face of the world’s infinite complexity. Conservatives often distrust abstract principles and theories, instead placing their faith in experience, history, and, above all, pragmatism. They believe that actions should be guided by practical circumstances and goals, subscribing to the principle of ‘what works’. PRAGMATISM Crossing the river by feeling the stones Shock therapy PRAGMATISM Deng Xiaoping’s economic reforms in China were pragmatic, contrasting with Boris Yeltsin’s rapid ‘shock therapy’ in Russia. While Yeltsin pursued immediate privatisation and price liberalisation, Deng opted for gradual reforms and controlled market liberalisation, allowing China to maintain stability and foster growth. HUMAN IMPERFECTION Conservatives view human beings as limited, dependent, and security- seeking creatures inclined towards the familiar and the tried/tested. They believe that people need to live in stable and orderly communities. They hold a view of human nature that acknowledges its potential for moral corruption, perceiving humans as selfish, greedy, and thirsty for power.  They argue that the roots of crime and disorder reside within the individual rather than in society.  Therefore, conservatives argue for the maintenance of order through a strong state, the enforcement of strict laws, and stiff penalties.  Politics WHAT LED TO THE RISE IN in Action… FLASH MOB ROBBERIES? Flash mob shoplifting is frequently linked to urban lawlessness by conservatives. They argue that this image is further magnified due to policies introduced by liberal prosecutors, including the elimination of cash bail and the decision to forego prosecution of misdemeanours. ORGANICISM Conservatives have viewed society as an organic entity, not a product of human ingenuity. They see society as being structured by various institutions — such as families, communities, and the nation — which contribute to its health and stability. They hold the belief that the whole is more than the sum of its individual parts. Furthermore, conservatives emphasise the importance of shared values — often traditional ones — and common culture as crucial to the maintenance of community and social cohesion. HIERARCHY In an organic society, conservatives consider gradations of social position and status to be natural and inevitable.  These reflect the differing roles and responsibilities of individuals, such as those between employers and workers, teachers and pupils, and parents and children. However, conservatives argue that hierarchy and inequality do not necessarily give rise to conflict.  They believe society is bound together by mutual obligations and reciprocal duties.  Those who are prosperous have a particular responsibility to take care of the less fortunate. AUTHORITY Conservatives maintain the belief that authority is always exercised ‘from above’.  Elites provide leadership, guidance, and support for those who lack the knowledge, experience, or education to act wisely in their own interests. Authority is seen as a source of social cohesion, giving people a clear sense of who they are and what is expected of them.  Conservatives also assert that freedom must coexist with responsibility, which largely consists of a willing acceptance of obligations and duties. PROPERTY Conservatives view property ownership as vital for several reasons.  Firstly, it provides individuals with security and a measure of independence from the government.  Secondly, owning property encourages people to respect the law and the property of others. Lastly, conservatives view property as an ‘exteriorisation’ of people’s personalities — individuals ‘see’ themselves in what they own, thereby expressing their identity and freedom through their property. SOCIALISM AND ITS VARIANTS  SOCIALISM Socialism first developed as a reaction against the emergence of industrial capitalism in the early 19th century. Its primary goals were to abolish the capitalist economy based on market exchange and to replace it with a socialist society built upon the principle of common ownership. This revolutionary ideology exhibited a utopian character, envisioning a radically different society based on equality and communal living. SOCIALISM From the late 19th century, a reformist socialist tradition emerged as the working classes gradually integrated into capitalist society, marked by better working conditions, higher wages, and the growth of trade unions and socialist parties.  These developments suggested a peaceful, lawful shift to socialism via parliamentary methods. Consequently, the 20th-century socialist movement divided on achieving socialism:  Revolutionary socialists, exemplified by Leninist communism, sought a radical system change, while reformist socialists favoured a gradual approach through social democracy. ELEMENTS OF Community SOCIALISM Common Ownership Fraternity Social Social Equality Class Need COMMUNITY At the core of socialism is the view of human beings as social creatures, linked by the existence of a common humanity. Socialists advocate for the importance of community, asserting that individual identity is shaped by social interactions and membership in social groups and collective bodies. They tend to emphasise the role of nurture over nature, explaining individual behaviour primarily in terms of social factors rather than innate qualities. FRATERNITY Given that humans share a common humanity, socialists believe they are bound together by a sense of fraternity. This encourages socialists to favour cooperation over competition, and collectivism over individualism. They argue that cooperation allows individuals to harness their collective energies, strengthening the bonds of community. On the other hand, competition can pit individuals against each other, potentially breeding resentment, conflict, and hostility. SOCIAL EQUALITY Equality stands as the central value of socialism. In this light, socialism can be viewed as a form of egalitarianism, which prioritises equality over other values. In particular, socialists emphasise the importance of social equality, favouring equality of outcome as opposed to equality of opportunity. They believe that a degree of social equality is the essential guarantee of social stability and cohesion. Moreover, it provides the basis for the exercise of legal and political rights. NEED Socialists’ emphasis on equality reflects their belief that benefits should be distributed based on need, rather than simply on the basis of merit or work. This belief is encapsulated in Marx’s principle: ‘from each according to his ability, to each according to his need’. Socialists believe that the satisfaction of basic needs, such as food and shelter, is essential for a meaningful human existence and active participation in social life. To achieve distribution according to need, socialists argue that people must be motivated by moral incentives, not merely material ones. SOCIAL CLASS In socialism, society is often analysed through the lens of wealth distribution, making social class a significant social cleavage. The working class, often seen as oppressed and exploited, is viewed as a potential agent of social change and even revolution. The primary goal of socialism is either the eradication or substantial reduction of economic and social inequalities. COMMON OWNERSHIP Socialists view common ownership either as the ultimate goal of socialism itself or as a means to generate broader equality. They believe that through common ownership, whether in the form of Soviet-style state collectivisation or selective nationalisation, material resources can be harnessed for the common good. From a socialist perspective, private property tends to promote selfishness, acquisitiveness, and social division. MARXISM Marxism can be broadly divided into two main categories: Classical Marxism and Orthodox Communism. Classical Marxism originates as a socio-economic ideology from the foundational texts authored by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels during the 19th century. On the other hand, Orthodox Communism, or Leninist-Marxism, represents the evolution and Karl Marx was a German application of Marxism in the 20th century, which, in philosopher and the founding certain aspects, diverges from classical doctrines. figure of 20th-century communism. CLASSICAL MARXISM At the heart of Classical Marxism is a philosophy of history known as historical materialism. Marx proposed:  that the economic ‘base’ influences the ‘superstructure’ and  that the primary agent of historical change is the dialectic—a process of engagement between conflicting forces, which results in a more advanced stage of development. CLASSICAL MARXISM Marx believed that capitalism is destined to fail due to the irreconcilable conflict between the bourgeoisie, or capitalist class, and the proletariat, or working class.  The capitalist class systematically exploits the working class by extracting ‘surplus value’ from their labour.  A series of economic crises would inevitably lead the proletariat to full class consciousness, transforming it into a revolutionary force. This would spark a proletariat revolution, leading to a transitional ‘socialist’ period. Over time, this would evolve into a classless and stateless ‘communist’ society. ORTHODOX MARXISM Orthodox Communism, often associated with Leninist-Marxism, is a 20th-century interpretation and application of Marxist theory. It includes the modifications and practices introduced by leaders such as Vladimir Lenin and Joseph Stalin. A key contribution made by Lenin to Marxism was his development of the vanguard party theory.  This theory came from his concern that the working class, without proper guidance, might not realise its power to make a revolution on its own.  Lenin suggested that the proletariat would likely attain what he termed ‘trade-union consciousness’ – an inclination towards improving their working conditions under capitalism, instead of trying to get rid of capitalism altogether. ORTHODOX MARXISM  Therefore, Lenin argued for the necessity of a hierarchical, disciplined revolutionary party to provide leadership to the proletariat. In the 1930s, Joseph Stalin established a variant of Orthodox Communism that would later be adopted by other nations, including China, North Korea, and Cuba.  This model was defined by state-led collectivisation and centralised planning, with the goal of quickly industrialising the Soviet Union.  Simultaneously, Stalin executed a series of purges against his political rivals, a period known as the ‘Great Purge’, with the intention of consolidating his power.  Jeremy Corbyn's £48B manifesto plan – POLITICO DEATH OF MARXISM? The collapse of communism at the end of the 20th century In recent years, socialist ideas have become more popular in Western politics, with more does not necessarily left-wing populist parties and movements gaining attention. This resurgence can be imply the death of seen, for instance, in the UK Labour Party under the leadership of Jeremy Corbyn, and Marxism in the United States during Bernie Sanders’s run for the Democratic nomination in the as a political ideology. 2016 Presidential election. SOCIAL DEMOCRACY Social democracy represents a balance between the market and the state, as well as between the individual and the community. While ideologically, it acknowledges the efficiency of the market, it also champions social welfare and equitable wealth distribution, reflecting the emphasis on common ownership found in socialism. There is a compromise between accepting capitalism as the only reliable mechanism for generating wealth and the desire to distribute that wealth according to moral principles.  Particularly, it focuses on protecting the weak and vulnerable in society. SOCIAL DEMOCRACY It advocates a ‘top-down’ model of welfarism, redistribution, and social justice to ‘humanize’ capitalism through state intervention and to narrow the gap between the rich and poor. This is accompanied by Keynesian economic policies that support a mixed economy and an extensive welfare system, which are financially sustained by progressive taxation.  THIRD WAY Tony Blair, a former British Prime Minister, was once the foremost advocate for the Third Way approach. The Third Way offers an alternative to social democracy and neoliberalism by opposing top-down control and recognizing the government’s social and economic roles in a knowledge-based economy. It supports a ‘workfare state,’ where benefits or education depend on individuals seeking employment and self-reliance. Additionally, it seeks a balance between profit-driven business values and social responsibilities. CHALLENGES TO THE DOMINANT IDEOLOGIES FEMINISM Wollstonecraft'çåçæ å°çµ æ The core feature of feminism is a common desire to enhance, through whatever means, the social role of women. The underlying themes of feminism include:  The recognition that society is marked by gender inequality.  The belief that the patriarchal structure, which upholds male power, can and should overturned. Mary Wollstonecraft was an Mary Wollstonecraft’s influential work, ‘A Vindication English writer, philosopher, and of the Rights of Woman’ (1792), laid the foundation an ardent advocate for women's rights. for feminism as a developed political theory. FEMINISM  Wollstonecraft’s main argument is that women should be afforded the same fundamental rights as men, particularly regarding education.  She contended that women were not naturally inferior to men, but appeared to be so because they lacked education. She proposed that both men and women should be treated as rational beings, entitled to the same rights that men enjoy in the public sphere. Contrasting with the ‘first wave’ of feminism, led by thinkers like Wollstonecraft, the ‘second wave’ of feminism, which emerged in the 1960s, is characterised by its radical strand. Radical feminists aim to spotlight the patriarchal relationships that permeate the private sphere. FEMINISM Kate Millett, a leading figure in the ‘second wave’ of feminism during the 1960s and 1970s, argued that men’s oppression of women is all-pervading, leading her to advocate for a sexual revolution to overthrow the patriarchy.  Rejecting the division between public and private spheres, Millett called for a radical transformation across all areas of life, especially in the personal, domestic, and family domains.  The key to a true sexual revolution lay in dismantling the traditional family structure. RELIGIOUS FUNDAMENTALISM Many societies have established a separation between church and state. In these secular regimes, religion transitions into a private affair, not intruding into the public sphere. However, religious fundamentalists often object to this secular form of government and strive to integrate their beliefs into the political realm.  Politics, as well as all aspects of personal and societal existence, are secondary to the ‘revealed truth’ of religious doctrine.  Political and social life should be organised based on religious principles. These beliefs are often backed by a belief in the literal truth of sacred texts. RELIGIOUS Why Narendra Modi's Election Threatens Democracy in India | The Nation FUNDAMENTALISM Examples of such movements can be seen in the ‘New Christian Right’ in the USA since the 1970s, Hindu fundamentalism in India, and Islamic fundamentalism. These groups, while diverse in their specific beliefs, share a common drive Since Narendra Modi, a Hindu nationalist and leader to shape society based on their of the right-wing Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), became interpretation of religious principles. India’s Prime Minister in 2014, India has seen an increase in incidents where groups of radical Hindu nationalists have targeted religious minorities across the country. FASCISM A core theme of fascism is building an organically unified national community, reflected in the belief in ‘strength through unity’. Individual identity must be absorbed entirely into that of the community or social group. This ideology was prominent in Mussolini’s fascist dictatorship in Italy, which represented an extreme form of statism.  This statism was based on absolute loyalty and unquestioning respect towards a ‘totalitarian state,’ characterised by the principle: ‘everything for the state; nothing against the state; nothing outside the state.’ FASCISM Similarly, Hitler’s Nazi dictatorship in Germany also embraced fascism but added an element of racialism.  For example, the German people were positioned as the ‘master race,’ destined to dominate the world.  Concurrently, Jews were depicted as inherently evil and targeted for eradication. Neofascism and neo-Nazism have resurfaced in recent decades, exploiting economic crises, post-communist instability, and growing concerns over immigration and multiculturalism. SUMMARY SUMMARY: MAPPING POLITICAL IDEOLOGIES ALONG ONE LEFT-RIGHT AXIS LEFT RIGHT Fascism Socialism Conservatism Post-war Marxism Social Liberalism “One-nation” consensus on Democracy conservatism the welfare state Equality of opportunity Third Minimal New Right/ Road state Neoliberalism/ Neo-conservatism  Socialism (Social Religious Liberalism Conservativism Marxism Fascism Democrats) Fundamentalism a world of a world of talented (but a world of a world of uneven talented morally weak) capitalist distribution of A corrupted world a world of What the world is individuals seeking individuals exploitation wealth and deviated from oppressed for good economic seeking for good against the challenges from religious teaching national self and social life economic and workers capitalist social life a world of an ordered talented society with a classless society a world organised a world of equal a world ruled by individuals lives everyone works in with genuine free under the religious What the world should be and fair economic the superior with their only accordance with economic and principles of the distribution national self choice of good social rules and social life scared text life traditions Order, strong state and any actions to discussion, Class state intervention Power to the organisational restore the Roadmap to utopia deliberation and consciousness and and redistribution personal leader control, weak principles (civil or consensus revolution policy and follow individual violence) freedoms Stance on human rationality Cannot be Cannot be (positive/negative/neutral/ca Positive Negative Negative Negative determined determined n't be determined)  Socialism (Social Religious Liberalism Conservativism Marxism Fascism Democrats) Fundamentalism Stance on economic freedom Private property (private property/collective Collective Cannot be Private property Private Property Private poverty but serving the ownership/cant be ownership determined state interests determined) Stance on political freedom Positive (but rest Cannot be Cannot be (positive/negative/neutral/can Positive on economic Positive Negative determined determined not be determined) freedom) Politics or Economics matter State power Politics first Political first Economic Politics first Nothing matter more? matters Right/Central/Left/Cant be Extreme Left or Central-left Central-right Extreme Left Left Extreme right determined? Extreme Right Core units in the society Individual., Individual (the (individual/organisation/econ Individuals Organisation Economic class Organisation Church leader matter), the omic class/the church) (state) state Organicism Community statism Freedom Human Fraternity individual Toleration Principles of the Imperfection Social Class Community subordinated to Equality religion matter Property Need Fraternity the state Key concepts in the ideologies Individualism Sacred texts are Pragmatism Social Equality Need no private sphere Constitutionalism the only source of Tradition Common Social Equality strength through Reason legitimacy Authority Ownership unity under the Consent Hierarchy leader REFERENCE Heywood, A. (2019). Political Ideas and Ideologies. In Politics (pp. 26- 55). London: Red Globe Press.