CC102-midterms-reviewer.docx

Lesson 1  Data as a general concept refers to the fact that some existing information or knowledge is represented or coded in some form suitable for better usage or processing. It is a series of observations, measurements, facts, and communication.  \- single character  \- Boolean (true or false)...

Lesson 1  Data as a general concept refers to the fact that some existing information or knowledge is represented or coded in some form suitable for better usage or processing. It is a series of observations, measurements, facts, and communication.  \- single character  \- Boolean (true or false)  \- text (string)  \- number (integer or floating-point)  \- picture  \- sound  \- video     Data is raw, unorganized facts that need to be processed.  - datum (something given)   - 1600s  - Information is something that can be measured quantitatively.  - it is organized or classified data.     ICT- refers to technologies that provide access to information through telecommunications.  \- in the past ICT provided society with a vast array of new communication capabilities.  \- it includes the internet, wireless networks, cellphones, and other communication mediums.  \- modern ICT created a \"global village\", in which people can communicate with others across the world as if they were living next door.     computer is a machine or device that performs processes, calculations, and operations based on instructions provided by a software or hardware program.  \- modern computers are electronic devices used for a variety of purposes ranging from browsing the web, writing documents, editing videos, creating applications, playing video games, etc.     Input devices are hardware peripherals  used to communicate between humans and computers.  \- it sends signals to the computer as input to command a computer machine what to do.  \- sends the data into the computer    keyboard   \- it looks like a typewriter  \- it has buttons called \"keys\"  \- use to type letters, numbers, and symbols  mouse  \- pointing device  \- it points to objects on the screen, clicks, and moves them.  \- it allows you to control the movement of an on-screen pointer.  microphone  \- allows you to input sounds like speech and song into the computer.  web camera  \- used to take live photos or video  \- all cameras are made of semiconductor devices called CCD.  joystick  \- it makes computer games a lot more fun  \- is used in game applications and program simulations of animations.  scanner  \- it scans and copies pictures and pages, and turns them into images that can be saved on a computer.  \- often part of a printer and one of the features of it.     System Unit  \- processing device  \- it contains the main components of the computer, including the motherboard, memories, CPU, on/off button, and power supply.  \- The CPU is the brain of the processing device     output device is a part of a complete computer hardware that receives data from a system unit and then translates that data into another form.   \- it receives data and signals from the system unit.     monitor  \- it works with the video card, located inside the computer case, to display images and text on the screen.  printer  \- it prints the result of your works  \- this is called a printout  \- it composed of texts and images  speakers/headphone  \- it produces different types of sounds   \- made of electrical components called transducers.     storage devices used in computers are special devices made of special materials.     hard disk  \- used for storing data, it is a semi-magnetic called a platter  floppy disk  \- it stores small amounts of information  \- it works when it is inserted into the floppy drive  \- it is made of a magnetic device  compact disk  \- stores many times more information than floppy disk  \- made using glass and laser technology   \- data are stored using sophisticated light technology and light beam  USB flash drive  \- a portable storage device  \- small and lightweight  ram o random access memory  \- an internal and physical memory hardware installed in the motherboard of the system unit     Characteristics of a computer  \- intimate object  \- needs outside intervention to run  \- can only do things for which it is intended  \- electronic  \- made of electronic circuits  \- powered by electricity  \- automatic  \- can set up its internal operations on its own  \- can execute automatically by way of a stored computer program  \- it can manipulate data  \- it has a memory  \- it has logical functions     Capabilities  speed - it operates at the speed of electronic flow, measured in billionth and trillionth seconds.  repetitive - can perform the specified tasks repeatedly  accuracy- when the machine is programmed correctly and when input data is error-free, the accuracy of the output is relatively assured.  decision-making capability/logical operations - can decide based on the data and commands that the users\' input  - store and retrieve information - can save and retrieve information for future use  - ability to check itself - can check their work  - ability to communicate with other users or machines - can share files and resources among other computers.     There are three basic kinds of computers. these kinds are based on the hardware structure and the way physical quantities are represented in a computer.     analog computer is a type of computer, where to use data in continuous form, not discrete, and a changeable constant stream of data is known as \"analog data\".   \- can store simple information in steady physical amounts like electrical potential, liquid weight, or mechanical movement.  \- it creates the outcome  \- widely used for specific specialized engineering and scientific applications, calculations, and measurements of analog quantities.  \- hybrid controller  \- simulation of a spaceship  \- mass-spring-damper system  \- simulation of a car-suspension system  \- vehicle simulation  \- speedometer  \- telephone lines  \- frequency of signal and voltage  \- oscilloscope  \- television  \- analog sound processor  \- operational amplifiers  \- mechanical integrators  \- wheel balancing computer     Slide Rule is a straightforward type of analog computer and this computer helps to produce an approximate result for simple mathematical operations.   \- mostly used in engineering     differential analyzers were analog computers designed to solve all differential equations. these computers had a large size for modern computers because today those computers fill space like a pc. in the image is an obsolete differential analyzer that we used in calculus.     castle clock has a better representation of several uses for mechanical analog computers; Al-Jarazi developed the castle clock analog computers.   \- this computer was able to store different programming commands   \- height is 11 feet     mechanical analog computers are designed along with different components such as gears and levels, which do not use electronic parts. it produces output while turning to gears, and it can perform multiplication and division operations.     pneumatic analog computers use the compressed air in the form of power source that is very simple and inherently analog, and these computers are mostly used in the military and non-residential building areas. Input signal line were calculated by the use of controlled air supplied to the inside of the computer.    hydraulic analog computer uses liquid, mostly oil to perform mathematical calculations. The first analog computer was used to solve differential equations. It was invented by **Mihalo Petrovic alas (1892), ** a member of the Serbian Royal Academi of Sciences.    It displays c;ontinuously Its rneasurer-nent unit is physical like tern per-at u re and press u re signal s type is electrc»rnagnetic wave- The- of analc»g signal wc r-ks as withc ut its It nc t cc ntair its rnernor-y unit and cc»rnputing terrninals- having input/output devices It enables physical tc::» deterrnine the continuc»usly variable Corr pzzter It displays data in discretely fc r-r-n as and \"I\" It transfc rr-ns all data intc:» binary fc r-r-n (O and I), and then it all operations thern- Its signal\'s type is a sequence of voltage pulses- Its transr-nissic r is with the the signal - It cc ntains a unit fc r- storing the result. Having input/c»utput devices It pr-c»duces the text c)r- visual c»utput with high ac;curacy- data. For ple The therr-norneter Exarnples telephc»ne Fc r exarnple printer. Exa rnc nitor- and Al I Per-sc»nal lines, Applicatic»ns are C:) eter-r-n ine Of several quantities anci other scientific operatic ns- resistc»-s and Lac;k abilities in all areas tc::» digital cc»r-nputer S lc w speed Need staff tc:::» operate it. Need a low level elec;trical nc»ise the- circuit tc::» get accuracy- cornputer-s like PC, HP DELL PCZ\>, and rnor-e. are U sage, business, and c»ther- per-sc nal usages. are IcygiC gates, processc»rs, and tcyggle switches. It can ernulate all behavior of analc»g cornputers- Faster to Analc»g cc»rnputer ne e-d fc»r- qualified staff to c»perate it- Nc» effect of nc ise in the digital c;ornputer     Super Computer in old days, large enterprises and organizations used the supper computers because they required large scale computing power. A supper computer is architectural and operational depend on parallel and grid processing because, with the help of thousand of processors, all processes are executed simultaneously. Mostly use in large scientific and engineering areas, because where required maintenance for a large amount of database.    **Some examples are:**  - Titan  - Sequoia  - K computer  - Mira  - Juqeen  - Super muc  **Functions are:**  - Industrial function  - Space exploration  - Weather forecasting  - Nuclear testing    Mainframe Computer uses primary memory such as ram and multiple processors. It serves as a central processing unit for all workstations and terminal points associated with it. A mainframe computer was designed to be used to process large amount of data in pet bytes. It able controls thousand of users at one time.     **Some examples are:**  - Banking  - Government  - Education system  **Functions are:**  - Government data processing  - Banking  - Insurance    The minicomputer is introduced in the mid-1960. This type of computer is a small size  compared to a supercomputer and mainframe computer. In which had been used the  different technologies such as transistors and core memory. "Digital Equipment Corporation" was made the first minicomputer with the US \$161000. In this computer also, multiple persons can work at a time without waiting.  **Some examples are:**  - Tablet PC  - Desktop minicomputer  **Functions are:**  - Process monitoring  - Data acquisition  - Feedback control   - Work at a time without waiting    The microcomputer is small in size. You can say it equivalent to personal computers.  Microcomputers use different technologies like CPU (one single chip), Microprocessor,  Input/output devices, and other storage parts. This is a multi-User computer that is a  significant advantage.  **Some examples are:**  -  PDA  - PC  - Smartphone  - Notebooks  **Functions are:**  - Application processing  - Educations  - Amusement    An embedded computer is a microcontroller technology-based system, and this has been designed for a specific task. An embedded computer does not need more power for massive computing. These computers can support some devices.  **Examples are:**  DVD Player/Recorder  Medical Equipment  Printer  Fax Machines  Washing Machine  Industrial Equipment  Home Automation \   An** operating system** is the most critical software that runs on a computer. It manages the computer\'s memory and processes, as well as all of its software and hardware. It also allows you to communicate with the computer without knowing how to speak the computer\'s language. Without an operating system, a computer is useless. The most common operating systems for personal computers  are Microsoft Windows, macOS, Unix, and Linux. \   Modern operating systems use a graphical user interface, or GUI (pronounced gooey). A GUI lets you use your mouse to click icons, buttons, and menus, and everything is  displayed on the screen using a combination of graphics and text. \     Microsoft created the Windows operating system in the mid-1980s. There have been  many different versions of Windows, but the most recent ones are Windows 10 (released in 2015), Windows 8 (2012), Windows 7 (2009), and Windows Vista (2007). Windows comes pre-loaded on most new PCs, which helps to make it the most popular operating system in the world.    macOS (previously called OS X) is a line of operating systems created by Apple. It  comes preloaded on all Macintosh computers or Macs. Some of the specific versions  include Mojave (released in 2018), High Sierra (2017), and Sierra (2016).  According to StatCounter Global Stats, macOS users account for less than 10% of global operating systems---much lower than the percentage of Windows users (more than 80%). One reason for this is that Apple computers tend to be more expensive. However, many people do prefer the look and feel of macOS over Windows.    Linux (pronounced LINN-UX) is a family of open-source operating  systems, which means they can be modified and distributed by  anyone around the world. Linux is different from proprietary software  like Windows, which can only be modified by the company that owns  it. The advantages of Linux are that it is free, and there are many  different distributions---or versions---you can choose from.  According to StatCounter Global Stats, Linux users account for  less than 2% of global operating systems. However, most servers  run Linux because it\'s relatively easy to customize.  Linux has many distributions today, and some are Ubuntu,  Fedora, Linux Mint, OpenSUSE, PCLinuxOS, Debian, Mandriva,  Red Hat, Kali, Sabayon/Gentoo, etc. They have the entire common  core Linux, but the difference is in their different capabilities and  usage applications. \  \ ***1. Sequential Computers:***  The sequential computing is traditional architecture. In this model, all instructions are  performed one by one, so the speed of this computing is slow compare to parallel  computing.  ***2. Parallel Computers:***  Parallel computing is an imaging type of model in which many processors or applications  execute simultaneously. In parallel computing splits the overload work into more than one  processor and computation simultaneously. \   Classification of Parallel Computing:  Bit-level parallelism  Instruction-level parallelism (ILP)  Data Parallelism  Task Parallelism \  \ Lesson 1.5.4 BY BASED ON NUMBER OF USERS  **1. Single User**  In this model, only one user can perform a task at a time.  **2. Multi-User**  In this model, only multiple users can perform tasks at a time.  **3. Network Types**  In this model, which has unique functionality, the connection between computers and  other terminals is connected with the local area network. \   Information and communication technologies are becoming tangled with our everyday lives in the industry, the service sector, transport, logistics, health care, housing, education, and our leisure time, almost without discerning it. As human beings, we are always attached to a lot of essential things in our life. Jobs, education, retailing, and banking these are the compulsory things in our life. \   The IT industry created a lot of job facilities for people who have skills in IT. It has created  job s like- Web developer, IT network administrator, computer game designer, IT technicians, etc. The IT industry also helped many people to become successful self-employer. For example-Steve Jobs, who was the founder of Apple Inc. along with Ronald Wayne. Bill Gates is the founder of "Microsoft." Mark Zuckerberg, the founder of the famous social networking site, "Facebook." This is also helpful because they have also employed people in their own company, which is also part of the IT industry. It has not only created jobs for many people, but it has also taken away many positions in society. For example- nowadays, people like to buy their products online, which has led to a reduction in floor jobs. For instance- Comet has gone into administration because it can't cope with online competition from other online shopping like Amazon and eBay. \  \ EDUCATION  Technology helped us in our education as well. This has introduced the most comfortable way of learning and teaching for both students and teachers.    \ MONEY AND BANKING   IT has also shown its valuable points on money and banking, which helped us a lot to buy necessary things using E-commerce, which includes online shopping, online selling, etc. It also helped a lot of companies to deal with other companies. We can use online money and banking service 24/7 hours a day   \ BUSINESS  Communication is an essential technique that is used to make a business very famous.  In earlier days, people used to communicate differently. They had to go to everyone\'s house to promote their products, which could take a long time to promote their work. They sometimes used to take a long journey so that they can deal with someone, and they can expand their business.  HEALTH   When we get sick, we don\'t want to go to many places other than home. But from homegoing for a consultation to a doctor, we need to move physically. Taking an appointment, talking to the receptionist, describing the problem we have, and then waiting for it increases our illness. This is when IT comes to helping us. Nowadays, we don\'t need to go to the doctor\'s and describe our problems; we can use the Internet to contact our doctor.   \ CRIME AND POLICING  IT has introduced a lot of things that prevent people from committing a crime. CCTV  camera, GPRS system, using a database for finding criminals\' information is not an ordinary thing, which is not impossible without the blessing of IT. In ordinary days police use GPRS to track someone\'s car, mobile phone if it has been stolen.   \ RETAILING   IT has introduced a lot of things that prevent people from committing a crime. CCTV  camera, GPRS system, using a database for finding criminals\' information is not an ordinary thing, which is not impossible without the blessing of IT. In ordinary days police use GPRS to track someone\'s car, mobile phone if it has been stolen.     **Some applications In IT:**   Lesson 2  PROGRAM & Ι)ΑΤΑ ΙΝΡΙΙΤ ιηα:τ ΙΤΝΙΤ CONTROL ΙΤΝΙΤ ARITHMETIC 1001C lJNtT ουτ?υτ υιιιτ RESUl.TS CENTRAl PROCESSING υγιτ  \ ***INPUTTING ***  Essential operation of  a computer system. Act of feeding in the data and instruction to the computer. \ Encoding - make data understandable by the CPU. \ Decoding - the information produced by the CPU must be converted to a human-readable form.  \ Input Unit devices take care of encoding. \ ➾ Keyboard, Mouse, Light Pen, JoyStick, Scanners, microphones, etc. are some examples of input unit devices.  \  \ PROCESSING UNIT  \ Processing - Task of performing calculations and comparisons. \ The unit in the Computer System that is responsible for processing is ALU (*Arithmetic and Logical Unit). * \ is the place where the actual execution of the instructions takes place during the processing operations.  \ All calculations & comparisons are made in the ALU.  \  \ OUTPUTTING \ Takes care of receiving processed information from the processing unit and presents it to the user in a suitable form. A computer produces results in a binary form, and the output unit does decoding to make it to the users. The devices that can output information from a computer are known as output unit devices. Monitors, Speakers, Projectors are soft output devices, whereas  printers, plotters produce hard copy output. \  \ CONTROLLING \ CU (*Control Unit) *doesn\'t perform any actual processing on data, yet it is known as a central  nervous system for the comforts of the computer.   Manages and coordinates the entire system.  \  \ DATA PROCESSING CYCLE   Sequence of steps or operations for processing raw data to the usable form. \  \     1. ***Data Collection*** \ ***        A stage of gathering data from the environment and preparing it for input. It is the first  *** \ ***        step that provides the data.*** \ ***    2. **Input * \          *Feeding of raw and filtered data for processing. If the inputs are not given correctly or * \ *         entered wrong, the output will be directly affected.* \ *    3. Processing*  \           Step where data is processed by electronic data processing,  mechanical processing, or  \           automated means.  \      4. *Output * \ *          *This is the step where data is processed by electronic data processing, mechanical  \           processing, or automated means. The processed data is one who gives information to the    user and can be put to use.   \       5. *Storage * \ *          The output data may be stored on a disk or permanent memory media for future * \ *          reference or use. * \  \  \ *Some Basic Definitions in Data Processing * \ ***Source Document *** \ ***Paper or document on which data is recorded when collected *** \ ***Data Capture *** \ ***Stage of entering the collected data into a data processing system such as a computer or   *** \ ***calculator. *** \ ***Encoding *** \ ***Converting data into  a form that is easier to input into a data processing system.*** \ ***Decoding *** \ ***Converting encoded data into a form that is easier to understand by people.*** \ ***Data Transmission*** \ ***Stage of Sending input data to the processor and carrying it across its various components. *** \ ***Data Communication*** \ ***Set of activities that allow data to be sent from one data processing system to another.*** \ ***Turnaround Document *** \ ***Contains the results of one processing activity, has more data added to it, and is used as input *** \ ***for another processing activity*** \  \ ***Basic Components of Computer Systems *** \ ***Four Major Components*** \ ***Hardware *** \ ***     Physical or tangible parts of the computer *** \ ***  1. Input Devices *** \ ***      ***Allow the user to input data/facts into the computer in a form that the computer  \       understands. The keyboard is a standard input device. Other input devices include a mouse, \       scanner, microphone, touch screen, webcam, barcode reader, joystick, and trackball. \    2. ***Processing and Memory Devices *** \ ***        Acts as the computers brain. Held together in a single unit called the **System Board*. \         The central processing unit or CPU is the electronic circuitry that manipulates data to  \         produce information. Some of the components in the CPU include ALU (arithmetic and  \         logic unit), CU (control unit), and the memory. There are two types of memory; the ROM  \         (read-only memory) and RAM (random access memory). ROM stores data permanently,   \         while RAM is volatile for its store data temporarily. RAM (Random Access Memory) is an  \         internal memory device that temporarily holds data and instructions while processing is   \         happening. If the CPU is the "brain" of the computer, then RAM is the "working memory" or  \         \"thinking memory\" used to store data just for the programs and applications being used at  \          that time. \    3**. *Secondary Storage Devices *** \ ***        ***Devices outside the system board that allows data and programs to be stored. These are  \         storage devices that operate alongside the computers primary storage, RAM, and         \         cache memory. Examples are floppy disks, hard disks, CDs, flash drive, and magnetic tapes. \    4. ***Output Devices***  \         Converts information that has been processed by the computer into a form that the user \         can understand. The monitor is the most common output device. Printers, speakers,  \         headphones, projectors, and plotters are some of its examples.   \     5***. Communication Devices *** \ ***         Used to communicate with another computer via telephone lines or radio links. Ex.***   USB \          Network Adapter, Network Card, Sometimes called Ethernet Card.           \                       *** Chipset as Hardware Part***                \                         Built-in communication devices and ports inside a motherboard. Chipset is a set  \                         electronic components in an integrated circuit known as a \"Data Flow  \                         Management System\" that manages the data flow between the processor,  \                         memory, and peripherals. Usually found on the motherboard*. Northbridge * \ *                        and Southbridge* are paired and is usually known as I/O controller hub. These two  \                         manage communications between the CPU and other parts of the motherboard.                                                                           \ Software  \        Collection of related programs that contain the step by step instructions telling the \        computer how to perform a task.  \                          Application Software - Set of programs designed to help the user to perform a  \                          particular type of work. Also called as Software Application or an application,  \                          consists of programs that perform specific tasks for users. \                          Ex. Microsoft Office, Adobe Photoshop, Google Earth, Facebook, etc. \                          System Software - Manages the computer hardware and works with the other  \                          software. Designed to operate the computer hardware and to provide a platform \                          for running application software.  \                          Ex. operating system, device driver and utility programs, DOS, Windows, Unix, Novell \                          Netware, Android etc. \      ***Lesson 3***  ***DATA ***-  The term used to describe the information represented by groups  \ of on/off switches. \  \ Data Definitions \ Data Bank - Store a large amount of information.  \ Data Capture - Any process for converting information into a form that can be handled by a computer.  \ Data Dictionary - Index of data held in a database and used to assist in the access to data, also called *Data Directory.* \ *Data Pen* - Device for reading or scanning magnetically coded on labels, packets.  \ Data Processing - Sequence of operations performed on data especially by a computer, to extract information, reorder files, and is a data-processing center. It also means to safeguard for individuals relating to personal data stored on a computer. \ Data Set - Another name for a set of computer files. \ Data Structure - Organized form, such as an array list or string in which related data items are held in a computer. \ Big Data - A massive collection of digital data whose analysis allows us to predict patterns and behaviors through inductive reasoning. \ Data Diddling - Fraudulent changing of data before or during entry into the computer system. \ Digital Archive - Virtual storing of data.  \ Interactive Databases System - A process of storing data in files based on the interaction between pieces of data. \ Cyber Terrorism - Attack on computers, networks, and interconnected infrastructures with the intent to intimidate or coerce groups of people or organizations in furtherance of political, social, or personal objectives.   Digital Footprints - Track left by users in the form of data in the process of transmission of information online.  \ Digital World - Electric spectrum of data creation, storing, retrieving and synchronizing.  \ Doxxing - Publishing personal data about people, especially on the internet, to threaten or blackmail them. Other term is cyber bullying with a threat of blackmail. \ Software Proposal - Detail-oriented document clearly outlining the objectives of the project like technical, terms, and financial aspects of the software project. \ Software Piracy - Intentional copy and use of a software product without the permission of its owner.  \   Computer represents data -- to a computer, everything is a number. Numbers are numbers; letters and punctuations marks are numbers; sounds and pictures are number. Even the computer\'s instructuions are numbers.   그 Off On LILIEIQQEIIAIA 口E\]口E\]口口E\]口 EIE\]EIEIBEIEIEI EIEIQEIQEIEIEI 010001 11 01010010 010011 11 010101 11 Data as represented in switches -- the value 256 is more than the number of symbols; it is the number of patterns of 0 and 1 that can be created using eight bits.     Image store on a computer -- an image is a matrix of pixel values. Virtually, every image can be represented as a matrix of pixel values.  the picture is transformed into ASCII codes and then to bits readable by the computer.    - ASCII -- This stands for American Standard Code for Information Interchange. Today, the ASCII character set is far the most commonly used in computers for all types  -  Extended ASCII -- This is an eight-bit code that specifies the character for values from 128 to 255. The first 40 symbols represents pronunciation and particular punctuation. The remaining signs are graphic symbols.  - Unicode -- this provides up to four bytes\_32 bits\_to represent each letter, number, or, symbol. With four bytes, enough Unicode can be created to represent more than 4 billion different characters or symbols.     **How data is represented in the computer?**  To include strings, integers, characters, and colors. This should consist of considering the space taken by data, for instance, the relation between the hexadecimal representation of colors and the number of colors available.    - Integer -- represented in binary, where a single number will usually be expressed in one byte  - Characters -- character is usually one byte (8bits), represented in binary  - Unicode - Standardization of assigning values to a specific character.     - Strings - Concatenation of characters and were represented in binary, as each 8-bit character following each other.  - Colors - Represented in the hexadecimal number system.  - -     Two components that handles processing: Central Processing Unit and the memory. Located on the computer\'s motherboard \  \ CPU or Central Processing Unit \ - brain of the computer. The place where data is manipulated. Two essential parts: the Control unit and Arithmetic Logic Unit. \  \ Control Unit \ - All the computer\'s resources are managed from the control unit.  \  \ Arithmetic and Logic Unit \ - Involves comparing numbers or carrying mathematical operations. Can perform two types of operations : Arithmetic operations and logical operations. Arithmetic : Addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. \ Logical operations include comparisons, such as determining whether one number is equal to, greater than, or less than another number. \  \ Types of Data Processing on Basis of Process/Steps Performed \  \ 1. ***Batch Processing  *** \ ***- One of the widely used types of data processing, which is also known as serial/sequential, tacked/queued of offline processing. The fundamental of this type of processing is that different jobs of different users are processed in the order received. ATMs are good examples of this data processing method. Examples include Examination, payroll, and billing system*** \ ***2. Online Processing *** \ ***- Part of the automatic processing method. This method, at times, known as direct or random-access processing. Under this method, the job received by the system is processed at the same time as receiving. ***  This is a method that utilizes Internet connections and equipment directly attached to a computer. Cloud computing can be considered as an example that uses this type of processing. It is primarily used for information recording and research. \ 3. ***Real-time Processing*** \ ***- ***Used for carrying out real-time processing. Required where the results are displayed immediately or at the lowest time possible.  \ 4. ***Distributed Processing *** \ ***- ***Commonly utilized by remote workstations connected to one big central workstation or server. ATMS are good examples of this data processing method.  \ 5. ***Multiprocessing *** \ ***- Most widely used type of data processing. It is used almost everywhere and forms the basis of all computing devices relying on processors.*** \ ***6. Time - sharing*** \ ***- The time-based use of CPU is the core of this data processing type. Uses a single CPU. All users share the same CPU, but the time allocated to all users might differ. *** \  \ ***Data Processing System *** \ ***Conversion ***converting data to another format.  \ Validation ensures that supplied data is \"clean, correct, and useful.\" \ Sorting \"arranging items in some sequence and/or at different sets.\" \ Summarization reducing detail data to its main points.  \ Aggregation  combining multiple pieces of data.  \ Analysis \"collection, organization, analysis, interpretation and presentation of data.\" \ Reporting List detail or summary data or computed information.  \ Presentation data presentation helps make decisions.  \  \ Machine Cycles  \ - Each time the CPU executes an instruction, it takes a series of steps. The completed sequence of steps is called the machine cycle. \  \ Four Steps of Machine Cycle  \ 1. Fetch - Retrieve an instruction from memory.  \ 2. Decode - Translate the retrieved instruction into a series of computer commands.  \ 3. Execute - Execute the computer commands. \ 4. Store - Send and write the results back in memory.  \  \ Computer Memories \ - Any physical device capable of storing information temporarily, like RAM, or permanently like ROM. Utilizes integrated circuits and are used by operating systems, software, and hardware. \  \ Volatile memory is a memory that loses its contents when the computer or hardware device loses power. Non-volatile memory, sometimes abbreviated as NVRAM, us a memory that keeps its contents even if the power is lost. EPROM : Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory. Invented by Dov Frohman.  \ RAM = \"memory\" or \"Primary Memory\"  \ Hard drive = as \"storage\" or \"Secondary Storage\"  \  \ Primary Storage Device is medium that holds a memory for short periods while a computer is running.  \ Secondary memory also referred to external memory, and auxiliary storage, it is a non-volatile device that holds data until it is deleted or overwritten. About two orders of magnitude cheaper than primary storage. \  \ ROM Three Categories :  \ PROM : *Programmable read-only memory* \ *EPROM *: *Erasable Programmable read-only memory* \ *EEPROM *: *Electrically Erasable read-only memory*  \  \ RAM six types :  \ EDO RAM - Extended Data Out also referred to as hyper page mode memory. Developed in 1995 by Micron. It allows a CPU to access memory 10 to 15-percent faster than the compatible fast page memory. \ SDRAM - Synchronous DRAM, type of memory that synchronizes itself with the computer\'s system clock.  **DDR RAM  - **Double Data Rate, DDR is a memory that was first introduced and has since been replaced by DDR2. It utilizes both the rising and falling edge of the system clock, potentially doubling the speed of memory.  \ DDR2 RAM - Double Data Rate Two, Operate at more incredible speeds than DDR. \ DDR3 RAM - Double Data Rate Three, Released in June 2007. \ DDR4 RAM - Double Data Rate Four, DDR4 is a type of system memory known as SDRAM and was released in 2014. \  \ SIMM - Memory module developed by Wang Laboratories in 1983.  \ DIMM - Dual in-line memory module, containing a circuit board and one more random access memory chips. \ SO-DIMM - Small Outline Dual in-Line memory module. \         Buffer - temporary storage in the memory that stores information \         while processing other information. \   Lesson 4    **What is a Storage device? ** \ **computing hardware used for storing, porting, and extracting data files and objects. Storage devices are hardware devices used to remember/store data.**  **Primary Storage -- **Generally smaller in size, are designed to hold data temporarily and are internal to the computer. RAM and cache memory.  **Secondary Storage --** these usually have large storage capacity, and they store data permanently. They can be internal or external to the computer and include hard disk, compact disk, and USB storage device.  **Magnetic Storage Device - **refers to any data storage using a magnetized medium. Digital data consists of binary information, which is data in the form of zeros and ones. Magnetic storage is a form of non-volatile storage. There are two types of magnetic polarities, each one used to represent either zero or one, including magnetic tape, floppy disks, and hard disk drives. \ Magnetic Tape -- It is one of the older types of magnetic device, it was invented in 1982 and was primarily used for analog audio recording.   **Floppy Disk -- **also known as a diskette, floppy, or FD, the floppy is another type of storage medium that uses magnetic storage technology to store information. It lasted from the mid-1970s to the start of the 21^st^ century. ( 8inch (203mm), 5&1/4 (133mm), 3&1/2 (90mm) ) \ **Hard Disk - **Hard disk drives are non-volatile magnetic storage devices capable of remembering vast amounts of data. An electromagnet in the read/write head changes the disk's surface with either a positive or negative charge; this is how binary 1 or 0 is represented. The disk surface is divided into concentric circles (tracks) and sectors (wedges). Dividing the surface in this way provides physical addresses to remember where data is saved.  \ Typical Applications for Hard Disk Drives  - Desktop Computers  - Laptop Computers  - TV and satellite recorders  - Server and mainframes  - Portables (external) drives are sometimes used to back up home computers or transfer large files.  **Benefits of Hard Disk Drives**  - Capable of holding vast amounts of data at affordable prices  - Fast read and write speeds  - Reliable technology  - Relatively small in size  **Drawbacks of Hard Disk Drives**  - Due to the nature of its moving parts, they will eventually wear and break  - Although very fast, waiting for the moving parts means it will never perform as fast as solid-state drives.  - More fragile and less robust than a solid state drives  - Higher power consumption than an SSD  - The moving parts create some noise  **Optical Storage Devices --** CD, DVD, and Blu-ray drives are optical storage drives. Binary data is stored as changes to the texture of the disc's surface, sometimes thought of as microscopic pits and bumps. ( cd 700mb, dvd 4,7gb, blu-ray 25 -- 128gb )  - CD -- Audio and small amounts of data  - DVD --  Standard definition of movies and data  - Blu-ray -- HD video and large amounts of data  **CD/DVD -- **Despite being the same physical size, a DVD can hold more data than a CD. To achieve this, a more tightly packed spiral track is used to store the data on the disc.  **Typical Applications for DVD-RAM**  - Personal and original video recorders  - High-end CCTV  - Benefits of DVD-RAM  - Read and write at the same time  - Can be written many more times than a traditional DVD-RW  - Has write-protect tabs to prevent accidental deletion  - Data is retained for an established 30 years  - Reliable writing for discs because the verification is done by the hardware  **Drawbacks of DVD-Ram**  - Disc speeds higher than 5x are less common  - Less compatibility than DVD-RW  **Blu-ray **is a technology that squashes even more data into a disc of the same size** **as a CD or DVD. The spiral data tracks on Blu-ray discs are so small a special blue (violet) laser has to be used to read the "bumps".   **Recordable Optical Media**  1. **CD-ROM, DVD-ROM,  Blu-Ray-ROM -- **Read only\_ the data is permanently written to the disc at the same point of manufacture.  2. **CD-**R, **DVD-RBD-R **-- recordable\_ blank discs that can be burnt (written to) once  3. **CD-RW, DVD-RW, BD-RE -- **Re-writable\_ blank discs that can be burnt (written to) over and over again (can be erased and reused many times)  **Flash Memory Devices - **Alternatively referred to as flash storage, flash memory is non-volatile computer memory. It was first invented by Fujio Masuoka in the early 1980s while at Toshiba and introduced it to the market in 1984. It was also later developed by Intel. Flash memory is an integrated circuit that does not need continuous power to retain data but is a bit more expensive than magnetic storage.  \ TYPES OF FLASH MEMORY: NAND, NOR, and 3D Flash Memory            NAND flash is a type of flash memory based on the NAND logic gate.            NOR flash is a type of flash memory based on the NOR logic gate.            3D NAND Flash and 3D NOR Flash are flash memory technologies that layer memory cells on top of each other in a stacked planar configuration. They offer persistent, modular storage at speeds comparable to RAM.  **USB Flash Drive-** also known as a thumb drive, pen drive, flash drive, memory stick, jump drive, and USB stick, the USB flash drive is a flash memory data storage device that incorporates an integrated USB interface. Flash is a non-volatile solid-state storage device that uses NANO flash memories to store data.  **Typical applications for Flash Memory **  -  USB memory sticks- saving and transferring documents, etc  - Memory cards in digital cameras  **Benefits of Flash Memory**  - Portable, small and lightweight  - Durable, flash has no moving parts to damage  - Range of capacities available  - Fast speeds, with no moving parts to boost uptime  **Drawbacks of Flash Memory**  - Limited (but huge) numbers of write cycles possible  - High capacities are uncommon  - In relative terms, expressive storage options compared to an HDD  **Secure digital card (SD Card) - **a common type of memory card, SD cards are used in multiple electronic devices, including digital cameras and mobile phones. Although there are different sizes, classes, and capacities, they all us a rectangular design with one side chipped off to prevent the card from being inserted into the camera or other device the wrong way.  **Solid state drive (SSD) -- **a non-volatile storage device capable of holding large amounts of data. They use NANO flash memories (millions of transistors wired in a series on a circuit board) giving them the advantage of having no mechanical moving parts and immediate access to the data.  **Typical Applications for Solid-State Drives**  - Smartphones  - Tablet computers  - High-end laptops  - Two drive desktop solutions  - Portable drives are sometimes used in HD video camera  **Benefits of Solid-State Drives**  - Extremely fast read/write speeds  - Small in physical size and every light, idea for portable devices  - No moving parts to wear  - Uses less power than the HDD  - Very quiet and generates less heat  **Downwards of Solid-State Drives**  - Expensive  - Limited in capacity  - Limited amount of writes  **Online Cloud Storage -- **is an internet service that provides storage to computer users. Types of services offered by cloud storage providers vary. Some provide storage for files, photos, or e-mail messages.  **Users Subscribe to Cloud Storage for a variety of reasons**  - To access the Internet from a computer or device that Internet access   - To store large audio, video, and graphics files   - To allow others to access their files on the internet  - To view time-critical data and images immediately while away from the main office or location  - To store offsite backups of data  **Pros of Cloud Storage**  - You can sign up with one of the best cloud storage companies and begin uploading data immediately.  - Everybody knows that nothing online is 100% secure, still for the typical average user who is backing up.  - Easy to use  - Once your files are uploaded to the cloud, you can access them from your desktop, cellphone, or tablet.  **Cons of Cloud Storage**  - Requires internet access  - You don't have physical control it  - Security concerns for high-profile users  - Vendor lock-in  **Paper Storage- **storage refers to the use of paper as a data storage device. This includes writing, illustrating, and using data that can be interpreted by a machine or is the result of the functioning of a machine.  **The six most common methods below. Generally speaking, the best way to protect data is to prevent its loss.**  1. Deleting files by mistake   2. Power failure  3. **S**pillages, drops, or other physical accidents  4. Viruses and other forms of malware  5. The storage device is stolen  6. Fires, floods, explosions, and other catastrophic events.  **14 things you need to know about data storage management**  1. Knows your data  2. Don't neglect structure data  3. Understand your compliance needs  4. Establish a data retention policy  5. Look for a solution that fits your data, not the other way around  6. Don't let upfront costs dictate your decision  7. Use a tiered storage approach  8. Know your clouds  9. Carefully vet storage providers  10. Make sure your data is secure  11. Don't store redundant data  12. Leverage technologies that use reduplication snap shooting and cloning  13. Make sure you can find the data you need once it's been stored  14. Have a disaster recovery plan and constantly test  **Measuring and Improving Drive Performance -- **the performance of a hard disk is significant to the overall speed of the system a slow hard disk has the potential to hinder a fast processor like no other system component and several factors determine the sufficient speed of a hard disk.  **Hard Drive Latency --** measured in milliseconds, including both seek time and rotational latency. Seek time is measured and defines the amount of time it takes a hard drive to read/write head to find the physical locations of a piece of data on the disk.  **Hard Drive Transfer Rates- **sometimes called media rate, is the speed at which data is transferred to and from the disk media and is a function of the recording frequency.  **Disk Optimization -- **Alternatively referred to as disk compression, disk optimization is designed to organize data or compress data allowing the disk drive to contain the maximum amount of information possible  **Benefits of Disk Optimization**  - Scanning for and removal of junk files  - Scanning and defragmentation of hard disks  - Removal of old backups  - Compression of large files to further free up disk space  **Disk Defragmentation --** is the process of consolidating fragmented data on a volume to work more efficiently.     Acronym  ICT - INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES \ IT - INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY \ VoIP - VOICE OVER INTERNET PROTOCOL \ CCD - CHARGED COUPLED DEVICE  \ CPU - CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT \ CD - COMPACT DISK  \ RAM - RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY \ USB - UNIVERSAL SERIAL BUS  \ OS - OPERATING SYSTEM   GUI - GRAPHICAL USER INTERFACE  \ WAN - WIDE AREA NETWORK  \ LCD - LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY \ CRT - CATODE RAY TUBE  GPU - GRAPHICAL PROCESSING UNIT \ SD - SECURE DIGITAL   ARPANET - ADVANCE RESEARCH PROJECT AGENCY NETWORK \ MAN - METROPOLITAN AREA NETWORK \ LAN - LOCAL AREA NETWORK \ ALU - ARITHMETIC LOGIC UNIT  \ WWW - WORLD WIDE WEB \ HTTP - HYPERTEXT TRANSMISSION PROTOCOL \ ROM - READ ONLY MEMORY \ DVD - DIGITAL VERSTILE DISK  \ URL - UNIFORM RESOURCE LOCATOR   ARPANET -  ADVANCED RESEARCH PROJECTS AGENCY NETWORK   WIFI - WIRELESS FIDELITY \  GIGO - \"Garbage in - Garbage  out\" \ DOS - DISK OPERATING SYSTEM  ACCII -- AMERICAN STANDARD CODE FOR INFORMATION INTERCHANGE  Binary code    o convert numbers from decimal to binary, the given decimal number is divided repeatedly by 2 and the remainders are noted down till we get 0 as the final [quotient](https://www.cuemath.com/numbers/quotient/). The following steps is considered as the decimal to binary formula that shows the procedure of conversion.  - **Step 1:** Divide the given decimal number by 2 and note down the [remainder](https://www.cuemath.com/numbers/remainder/).  - **Step 2**: Now, divide the obtained quotient by 2, and note the remainder again.  - **Step 3:** Repeat the above steps until you get 0 as the quotient.  - **Step 4:** Now, write the remainders in such a way that the last remainder is written first, followed by the rest in the reverse order.  - **Step 5:** This can also be understood in another way which states that the Least Significant Bit (LSB) of the binary number is at the top and the Most Significant Bit (MSB) is at the bottom. This number is the binary value of the given decimal number.    **Decimal Numbers**  **Binary Numbers**  ---------------------- --------------------- 0  0  1  1  2  10  3  11  4  100  5  101  6  110  7  111  8  1000  9  1001  10  1010  11  1011  12  1100  13  1101  14  1110  15  1111  16  10000  17  10001  18  10010  19  10011  20  10100  Example:  **Division by 2**  **Quotient**  **Remainder**  -------------------- --------------- ---------------- 174 ÷ 2  87  0 (LSB)  87 ÷ 2  43  1  43 ÷ 2  21  1  21 ÷ 2  10  1  10 ÷ 2  5  0  5 ÷ 2  2  1  2 ÷ 2  1  0  1 ÷ 2  0  1 (MSB)   \  \