Caribbean History Summary Notes PDF

CXC CARIBBEAN HISTORY NOTES THEMES INCLUDED: THE INDIGENOUS PEOPLES AND THE EUROPEANS CARIBBEAN ECONOMY AND SLAVERY RESISTANCE AND REVOLTS METROPOLITIAN MOVEMENTS TOWARDS EMANCIPATION ADJUSTMENTS TO EMANCIPATION,1838-1876 CARIBBEAN ECONOMY, 1875-1985 THE UNITED STATES IN THE CARIBBEAN, 1776-1985 CARIBBEAN POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT UP TO 1985 CARIBBEAN SOCIETY, 1900-1985 THE INDIGENOUS PEOPLES AND THE EUROPEANS The Indigenous Peoples of the Americas Migration to the New World The first people to inhabit the Caribbean region were theIndigenous Peoples or the Pre- Columbian Indians as they are also called. The Indigenous Peoples migrated from Asia and settled in the Americas and the Caribbean and established a way of life in these regions. Most people believe that the first inhabitants came to theAmericas from Asia between 15-20 000 years ago. This was during the Fourth Ice Age when large parts of the earth were covered with ice and the oceans and lakes were frozen. All this time, the Bering Strait (the narrow stretch of water which separating Alaska from the coast of Siberia in north-eastern Asia) was said to be forming an ‘’Ice Bridge’’. Early man depended on animals for food and clothing especially since the Ice Age had cause fruits and herbs to become scarce. These hunters were nomadic so they travelled from place to place in search of food and shelter. These hunters were following herds of animals like mammoths, dear and caribou without knowing that they were crossing from one continent to another. These Asian migrants are usually referred to as Mongoloids since they came from Mongolia in Central Asia. Settlement Patterns in the Americas The Asian migrants settled in North America and continued to hunt. As time passed, these people developed a way of life and also many languages. They lived in small family units and made their homes from the skins of the animals they hunted. Theirhomes are called tents. During the next thousands of years, they wandered in many directions. Those who occupied the same area, spoke the same language, and shared a common language are said to belong to a tribe. Some Amerindians lived in Eastern Canada (Mohawk) while some occupied the bleak and barren Artic regions. They were known as Eskimos. In North America, the Amerindians settled in areas such as the Florida Peninsula and Alaska. Some also settled in the Prairies of the Great Plains. The Incas settled in countries such as Chile, Argentina, Nicaragua, and Peru. The Aztecs settled in Mexico while the Maya settled in the Yucatan Peninsula, Guatemala, Honduras, parts of Belize, El Salvador, and Southern Mexico. The Mayas, Incas and Aztecs each developed civilizations which flourished and they are known as Mesoamericans. Settlement Patterns in the Caribbean The first group of Amerindians to arrive in the Caribbean were the Ciboney who settled mainly in Cuba. They migrated northwards from Suriname, Eastern Venezuela and Guyana in South America. Archaeologists have not found much evidence in order to describe what they were like or how they lived. This is because they left few artefacts behind. Sometime afterwards,the Ciboney were followed by the Tainos (Arawaks) and Kalinagos (Caribs). The Tainos’ original homeland was in the forest between the Orinoco and Amazon Rivers in South America. They travelled in large canoes and usually settled on each island they encountered. Then after a few years, some would move onto another island. The Arawaks were divided into two principle tribes which are the Lucayos in the Bahamas and the Tainos in the Greater Antilles. The Kalinagos followed the Tainos into the Caribbean. They lived further south in the jungles around the Orinoco. They also moved from island to island. At each one, they fought the Tainos and pushed them out and established themselves on the island. The Tainos fleeing from their enemies, the Kalinagos, crossed into Trinidad and continued to move further up the island chain. By the time the Europeans arrived in the Caribbean in 1492, the Tainos occupied mainly the islands of the Greater Antilles which are Puerto Rico, Cuba, Hispaniola and Jamaica. They also occupied the Bahamas and Barbados. The Kalinagos occupied mainly the islands of the Lesser Antilles such as Trinidad, Dominica and St. Vincent. Trinidad and Puerto Rico were occupied by both the Tainos and Kalinagos. The Tainos and Kalinagos in the Caribbean did not develop great civilizations like the Maya or Inca, rather they have been labelled as ‘’primitive’’ in terms of culture. The Amerindians dominated the region up until the arrival of the Europeans in 1492. The coming of the Europeans saw drastic changes in the way of life of the Amerindians and ensured their near-extermination. The Tainos/Arawaks Physical Appearance The Tainos were short to medium height, well- shaped, but slightly built, expect in Hispaniola where they were plump. According to Christopher Columbus, their skin colour was ‘’olive’’, that is smooth and brown. Their heads were flattened at the forehead by the use of boards or bandages when they were babies. The Tainos had broad noses and nostrils probably flared wide. Their hair was black and straight, but coarse, and was usually worn long. Economic Organization The Tainos fished, hunted and grew just enough food for themselves and their families. This is known as subsistence living. There was little or no extra food produced for storing or trading. The forest was cleared by burning trees and bushes and then planting crops. This method of clearing the forest is known as the slash- and-burn technique. Manioc or cassava was their main crop. They also cultivated other crops such as maize or corn, sweet potato, cotton, groundnuts, and tobacco. Since manioc could be harmful, they squeezed the juices out of it before making flour. The flour was then used to make thin, flat cakes or cassava bread. The Tainos practiced farming and gathering along with fishing and hunting. They caught and ate various types of fish, crabs, lobsters, turtles, shellfish, and manatee (sea cow). The coral reefs around the islands were filled with these animals which were easily caught by harpoon, or by hand. Turtles were caught by tying a remora (sucker-fish) that was caught on a long line to a canoe. The remora would dive for the turtle and attach itself to the back with its sucker. The turtle would then be pulled into the canoe by the fishermen. Hunting on land was more difficult as there were few large animals to put in a stew. The iguana, agouti and the Indian coney gave the most meat. Birds such as parrots, doves and wild ducks were also hunted and caught by slipping a noose over their heads. The method of catching ducks showed a lot of cunning. First, they floated gourds downstream until the ducks became used to seeing gourds, and then the hunter himself would drift downstream with a gourd over his head, breathing through a hole and seeing through eye-slits. When he came upon a bird he would pull it under water by its legs and drown it! There was only one type of domestic animal called an alcos (a small barkless dog). These small dogs were used to help the Tainos hunt. The Taino food was carefully prepared by stewing, baking, roasting and barbecuing. Iguana meat was stewed, cassava cakes were baked, and fish was roasted. Seasoning with salt and pepper was common. There was a special sauce called cassareep, made of salt, pepper and cassava juice. The favourite dish of the Tainos was pepperpot, a great stew into which went meat, vegetables, nuts, and of course pepper. A good pepperpot lasted for weeks. Its flavour was changed as some meat was added. Intoxicating drinks were made up of cassava and maize. In addition, there were also a variety of fruits and vegetables available. These included, pineapples, star apples, mammy apples, hog plums, guavas, and paw-paw. The Tainos therefore enjoyed a varied and well-balanced diet and food was plentiful. Method of how cassava juice was extracted from cassava The women grated the cassava on a board covered with small pebbles or rough coral until it formed a paste. This was put into a wicker tube, one end of which was hung from a branch, while a weight was attached to the other end. This caused the tube to contract, and forced the poisonous liquid out through the wicker. The paste which remained was left to dry and then pounded into flour using a mortar and pestle. The flour was formed into flat cakes and baked on a griddle until the cakes were hard and dry. In this way they could keep for some time. Social Organization Taino communities were small, although a few had more than a thousand houses that could be classed as large villages. The villages were scattered along the coast and near rivers. They often chose sites on top of hills as a precaution against surprise attack. Their houses were not built as permanent structures since every few years they moved to new areas for farming. Their houses were strongly built to withstand fierce hurricanes. Some of the villages were quite large. They were well planned, usually circular in shape, with a ball court or ceremonial plaza as their central feature. The chief’s hut was built next to the plaza. Not only was each village well planned, but Taino settlements were highly organized. The Tainos had two sorts of houses. The bohio (chief’s house)and the caneye (family house). In recognition of his status, the chief’s house should have been rectangular but the Tainos found it difficult to build and so he was often given a round house. The usual Taino house was round and constructed in the following way: wooden posts were put in the ground in a circle and canes were woven between them and tied creepers. The roof was thatched in a conical shape and a hole left in the top through which smoke could escape. There were no windows and only one opening for a door. They had little furniture expect for hammocks made of cotton in which they slept. There were a few highly polished clay pots for cooking and other food vessels. Sometimes stools, or even tables were found but these were very rare. Tools were small and made of stone. They were well shaped and highly polished. There would always be a small statue of a zemi made of wood, stone or cotton, or a basket of bones serving as a zemi, and cradles for children. Duties of the Taino Men The Taino men hunted for food and cleared the lands for cultivation. They also did the fishing. The men also built the houses and were the ones who went to war during war time. The boys helped the men to build the canoes. Duties of the Taino Women and Children The Taino women grew the crops (reaped). They mostly did the cooking, washing and cleaning. They also wove baskets and hammocks and took care of the children. The children took part in the reaping of crops, scaring away of birds and animals. They also caught the water to be used by the household. The girls helped their mothers weave. Political Organization The cacique or chief was the head of a Taino society. Cacique was a hereditary title which was passed from father to son. It was unlikely that a cacique would have no heirs as he was allowed many wives, although the Tainos were monogamous by custom. If he died without an heir, the title was passed to the eldest son of his eldest sister. (Also included are the duties of the cacique and his privileges) The cacique was more of a ceremonial leader than a lawmaker. He dealt with the distribution of land, the ordering of labour on the land, and the planting and distribution of the crops. He made the decisions of peace and war and was the leader in war but he made few laws and keeping the law and order was a matter for the individual. For example, if someone stole property it was up to the injured party to inflict punishment. His house was the largest and it was also built for him. His canoe was built by his tribesmen. He had a special stool called a duho and he was also buried in a marked grave and some of his wives were also buried with him. He was also given the best food and it was carried in a litter. His wives could also wear longer skirts than other women. As a religious leader, the cacique fixed the day of worship and led the ceremonies playing a wooden gong. He had his own zemis and they were felt to be stronger than others and thus he commanded additional respect and obedience. While the Cacique did have much power, he had advisors. Nobles called Mitaynos assisted the chief. These men had to be the eldest men in society because they knew the Kingdom’s boundaries of the past and recent years. They remembered the past of their kingdom and other arguments with other kingdoms. Decisions occurred in a council meeting with the cacique and higher ranking persons in Taino society such as the nobles. The older noble men had songs and dances which they taught the young villagers their history and laws. Religion Religious beliefs of the Tainos included the belief of the sky-god and earth-goddess and they made zemis to represent the forces controlled by these gods, like rain, wind, hurricanes and fire, or like fertility in the case of the earth-goddess’s zemi. They also worshipped their ancestors and made zemis for them, often out of the bones of these ancestors. The Tainos had a creation story which said that the first man escaped from a cave with the sun when the keeper of the cave forgot to close it. They believed in life after death in coyaba (said to be a peaceful place where they could meet their ancestors and be free of natural calamities like sickness and hurricanes). Other religious practices besides making zemis out of bones of their ancestors include, avoiding eye-contact with the sun (to avoid being turned into plants and animals) and burning a tribesman with his most valuable possessions to accompany him in coyaba. Taino Religious Ceremony In religious ceremonies, the priests often used tobacco or cohoba (powdered tobacco) which they inhaled directly into their nostrils to induce unconsciousness, the best state for communication with the zemis. If the priest failed to have his prayer answered by the zemi, it was felt that its power was too strong. For an important religious ceremony, the village would be summoned by blowing a conch shell and the cacique would lead a procession of the whole village. The priests would make themselves vomit by tickling their throats to clear away all impurity before communicating with the zemis. Importance of Canoes to the Tainos and How They Were Built The canoes were vital to the Tainos in their trading between certain islands. It was their only means of transportation. They used the canoes to fish, raid, travel and trade. They traded cloth, tools, weapons, furniture, tobacco, certain fruits, and gold. The Tainos built long canoes that could fit up to 80 people. They did not use metal tools to carve out the canoes from trees. They would use a silk cotton that was first ringed and burnt off at the base. They would then chip the other side then slowly burn out the interior. Then they would wet the hallowed trunk and insert wooden wedges of different lengths to widen it in the middle and tape it at the end, to shape the canoe. The canoe was then buried in damp sand to cure the canoe before being dried out in the sun. Village Customs: It was customary for the Tainos to flatten their babies’ foreheads. It was thought that a flat forehead was a mark of beauty and that it created a stronger skull and made it easier for boys to aim bows up into tree tops. They flattened the babies’ foreheads by playing their heads between two boards. The Tainos practiced subsistence farming, growing food for mainly themselves and their families. Painting the body in black, white, red and other colour dyes was a common custom. They painted their faces, eyes, noses, and parts of their heads. The dye was often obtained from tree bark and certain fruits. As a sign of rank, married women wore straight strips of cotton cloth hanging from their waist like a small apron. Colourful parrot feathers were worn in their hair. Bits of gold and copper hammered together to form a metal called guanin and jewellery made from this was worn by those of higher rank. The wives of the chief wore the longest cotton apron as a sign of their position. The Tainos used conch shells to make tools and musical instruments, even jewellery. The chief wore a coat of feathers, string of beads and semi-precious stones such as jasper and jade. Dress Taino men were usually naked except for special occasions, when they might wear decorative loincloths. They painted their bodies and wore sometimes wore decorations or jewellery. The chief wore a long apron, a coat of feathers, and jewellery or ornaments. The women usually wore a piece of cloth over their loins. The chief’s wives would wear the longest cotton apron as a sign of their position. Sometimes the Tainos wore colourful feathers in their hair. They also painted their bodies. Leisure time Activities The Tainos had ample leisure time which they occupied with singing and dancing, called areytos. The men and women usually danced separately, however, they would come together on special occasions in which the pleasure of drinking was added. They also had a ball game known as batos, which was played on a market field (batey), with two teams trying to hit the ball with any part of their body into their opponent’s goal line, a game somewhere between volleyball and football. Smoking was the most well-known Taino pleasure. With the plant called cohiba, and tobacco referred to the pipe in which the leaves were smoked, the Tainos liked it for peace, contentment and helping them meditate. They made cigars, chewed tobacco and, most enjoyed of all, smoked it in pipes. The Tainos also made craft. They made pottery, basketry, weaving, feather craft, and jewellery. Painting their bodies was also a leisure time activity along with a custom. Contribution of Tainos to the Caribbean and the wider world The Tainos made a few contributions to the world, including the fruits and crops they grew like cassava, sweet potato, pineapples, and groundnuts which are used worldwide and has become part of the Caribbean diet. Taino words such as ‘’hurricane’’, ‘’barbecue’’, ‘’buccaneer’’, and ‘’canoe’’ have all become part of the English Language and are frequently used. Barbecuing has become popular throughout the world and this was a Taino practice. Pepperpot is a dish still prepared by Caribbean people today. The Kalinagos/Caribs Physical Appearance The Kalinagos were taller than the Tainos, but still only of medium height. They were described as being strong and built due to the emphasis placed on training for fighting. Their skin was brown and usually went naked. The women painted their bodies with roucou (a red dye) and made fantastic decorations in many colours. The men would also paint their bodies would wear headdresses and jewellery. Very rarely you would also find them wearing cotton clothes around their waist. They had short heads and, like the Tainos, they flattened the foreheads of babies. They had a complete absence of body hair. Political Organization The Tainos had no such organization as the Tainos with their caciques. In peacetime they had only few laws, only those madeby the tiubutuli hauthe (village headman) who was the head of the family since each family lived in a separate village. However, in war the Kalinagos became more strictly organized. Each piraga (canoe) was captained by its owner and one of the captains was chosen as Ubutu or Ouboutou (commander-in-chief). If the raid was successful, he would keep this title for the rest of his life. The ouboutou planned the raids, chose the captains and distributed the prizes. He was greatly feared among his men for his power. The ouboutou became chief either by right of birth or through being an outstanding warrior. The village men along with the chief made plans for fishing, trading and war or for organizing the settlement. Kalinago men lived together in a large, rectangular house called carbet, because they were undergoing warrior training. The women carried food to the carbet but otherwise lived separately. The Kalinagos slept in hammocks, but they also had a kind of bed called amais. Their utensils were not so well made or polished as those of the Tainos. Social Organization The Kalinagos’ social organization was quite loose as their culture emphasized physical prowess and individualism. A Kalinago village was made up of a small number of houses, with a karbay or big meeting house as the central building. The karbay was where the men assembled, but the only way in was through a small door. There were many stout posts supporting the roof, and from these posts the hammocks were slung. The roof was thatched with palm fronds or cachibou leaves, which were tied down by mahoe, or rope, or cords. These cords were made from the bark of mahoe trees. The houses which surrounded the karbay were oval in shape and much smaller. The walls were made of reeds. There was only one room for the family, which included the father, wives and unmarried children. There were however, separate huts for cooking and storing precious objects such as hammocks, bows and arrows. In the kitchen, there were utensils such as pottery and calabashes, or couris. The rest of the furniture consisted of cotton hammocks, small stools and four-legged tables of basket-work called matoutou. Duties of Kalinago men The men cleared the forests to prepare gardens, they built houses and collected the palms for thatching the roofs, and cut trees to build canoes. Most of this work was done in the dry season and so this was the men’s time during the first part of the year. Throughout the year they secured food for the community. Duties of Kalinago women The women prepared and cooked the food. When the rainy season had commenced, it was the women’s duty to plant crops. This is because it was women who attended births and it was thought that all things that need fertility to grown must come from women’s hands. The women also spun thread, wove hammocks and made clay pots for holding food and liquid. Economic Organization Warfare was the Kalinago’s major interest. Internal conflicts were common; there was no important chief, military organization, or hierarchical structure. The men strove to be individualistic warriors and boasted of their heroic exploits. The Kalinagos produced several crops. Cassava or manioc was their main crop just like the Tainos. They also grew yam, sweet potato and maize or corn. They grew tobacco and cotton which they spun and wove into small strips of cloth. They also made strings for fishing lines and nets for making hammocks. With the islands free for all the tribe, the Kalinagos planted crops wherever they pleased. Usually they made farming plots from the village. The men cleared the lands using the slash-and- burn technique, while the women planted the crops and tended them. The Kalinagos hunted with bows and arrows, not just to get food but also for sport. For this they used arrows made from slender reeds with tips made of sharp wooden heads. Fish were caught in many ways. The Kalinagos used bows and arrows to shoot fish which came close to the surface. They also used nets, traps and fishing lines with hooks made of shells. Lobsters were caught in the reefs with harpoons. Conch and other shellfish were easily caught. The shells were used to make tools. Many of the islands on which they Kalinago lived on had streams full of fish. The Kalinagos knew how to poison the rivers by pounding the leaves of certain plants and mixing them into the water. This would stun the fish, which could then easily be caught by land. The Tainos were much better farmers than the Kalinagos, but the Kalinagos were better fishermen and hunters than the Tainos. The Kalinagos had more protein in their diet than the Tainos due to them consuming more meat and fish than the Tainos. The Tainos did not hunt or fish as much as the Kalinagos. Importance of canoes to the Kalinagos and how they were made The Kalinagos were always travelling back and forth among the islands, and were excellent seamen. The Kalinagos used their canoes to travel from island to island, fish, trade, hunt, and go on raids. They made two different types of canoes, and they were not very different from the canoes made by the Tainos. The smaller craft, the couliana, was at most about twenty feet long and was pointed at both ends. This type was used for fishing close to the shore and could only hold a few people. The bigger boat was called canoua, the word we still use today. The largest of these were up to fifty feet long and could carry thirty to forty people. These vessels were dug out of logs and stretched by fire and soaked with water to make the wood expand. It was in these larger canoes that the Kalinago went to attack other islands or to make long fishing and trading trips. The canoes were rowed with flat paddles shaped like spades. A long pole was used to guide the craft carefully over reefs. The bark of the mahoe tree was used to tie the large stone archer. Rafts were also made from trunks of light forest trees. Religious Beliefs and Practices The Kalinagos were polytheistic. They also believed in many gods. They believed in evil spirits known as maboya. The priest had the power to pray to the gods to turn back evil. They believed In the forces of evil. In life after death. In the existence of Heaven and hell. That there is punishment and reward in the afterlife. That those who were brave warriors went to a place where they were waited on by Tainos slaves. That the souls of cowards went to a dreary desert where they became slaves to Tainos masters. The priest or boyez was the only one who could communicate with the gods. In offering sacrifices to the gods especially when they went to sea. In using tobacco (incense) in the process of communicating with the gods. In having festivals and celebrations in honour of the gods. In keeping the gods happy (appeasing the gods). In offering prayers to the gods for bravery. Both the Tainos and the Kalinagos believed in nature and ancestor worship. Village Customs 1. Men and women lived separately. 2. Painting of the body to look fierce especially when going on raids. 3. They did not eat turtle. They thought it would make them slow and stupid. 4. They ate a lot of pepper. It was believed that this would make them fierce. 5. They flattened their foreheads from an early age. This was to make the arrow bounce off should they get hit in the forehead during battle. 6. They often hung the skull and or bones of their victims in their houses like trophy. 7. All boys were required to undergo initiation test when they reached puberty. 8. They were scratched with an agouti claw and pepper rubbed in the wound. If they bore it without flinching, they were chosen to be a warrior. If they flinched, they would be numbered among the priests. The Maya The Maya were the first group of Amerindians to develop a very high level of culture called a civilization unlike the Tainos and Kalinagos who had a simple way of life which did not develop beyond their family village settlement stage. The Maya are known as Mesoamericans. The Maya made outstanding advancements in Astronomy and Mathematics, and developed an accurately yearly calendar. They were one of the first people to develop an advanced form of writing. The areas where the Maya settled are Guatemala, the Yucatan Peninsula, Honduras, El Salvador, parts of Belize, and Southern Mexico. The magnificent civilization they developed in Southern Mexico was the most impressive of all the empires in the Americas and it flourished for at least 600 years from A.D. 250 to 900. This time period is known as the Classic Period of the Maya civilization. Social Organization Mayan society was strictly divided into rigid classes. Each social class had its own rights and duties. They were even guidelines considering the clothing and personal adornment worn by different social classes. At the top of the social pyramid was the Hulach Uinic who was both a High Priest and a Great Lord. Members of this upper class group included the Priests, other Lords, Nobles, the Batabs or Batabobs, and Nacoms or war chiefs. After the rulers and nobles were the majority of the people known as the working class. They were mainly farmers and artisans (craftsmen). They provided the tax system of crops and labour which supported the officials and priests. They also built magnificent stone cities, fine bridges, aqueducts (water path), and roads. There was also an independent merchant class.The Ppolms or merchants played an important role in the society. They had their own gods and lived according to their own laws. They did not have to pay taxes or give any personal service in agricultural labour road building. They did however perform a very important role in foreign affairs, for they frequently acted as spies especially during war time. The slaves were the lowest class in the society. Most slaves were people from neighbouring tribes who were captured during war time. They were used as servants for the upper class people and also as human sacrifices to Mayan gods. Economic Organization Most of the Maya people were farmers. They worked the land collectively as one community. The land was first cleared by burning and cutting forest trees. Next, the ground was broken with digging sticks called woa and the grains of corn were planted. Corn or maize was the most important crop. When it was harvested, the farmers had to give portions to the priests and noblemen as a form of tax. Large underground storerooms or granaries called chultunes were built for storing the grain. Other crops such as pumpkin, squash, cassava, potato, and cotton werealso cultivated. Huge reservoirs were built to store water. Wells or cenotes were also dug and from these water was carried to the fields. The Maya built roadways to encourage trade between their various cities. Trading also took place outside the Maya Empire. People came together to trade in large market places which were part of the city in their district. Trading was carried out by merchants (ppolms). As they travelled between city states and areas outside the Maya Empire, they were able to carry out their duties as spies for the Hulach Uinic. They did not have the wheel or any beasts of burden, such as horses and oxen. They carried most of their goods on their backs or on rivers in dugout canoes. The Maya were the only American Indians who carried on trading by sea as well as land. There is evidence to suggest that their canoes had contact with Cuba and Dominica. The Lowland Mayas handcrafted forest and sea products. The Highland group sold jade, volcanic glass, and quetzal feathers. The Yucatan Maya traded salt and finely decorated cotton. Cocoa beans were used as a medium of exchange. Sometimes small copper bells or red shells/strings were also used as a medium of exchange. The Maya practiced surplus farming unlike the Tainos and Kalinagos who practiced subsistence living. Political Organization Of the three groups, the Maya were the most advanced. They built vast empires and independent city states. As such, they had a fairly elaborate and rigid system of government. Each independent city state was ruled by a Halach Uinic. This was a hereditary position. It was passed down from father to son only. His powers were wide. He was almost an absolute ruler. He had the final say in all matters. He had various civil, military and religious duties to perform. He designed all domestic policies and foreign affairs. Remember that we are dealing with a very large area when compared to the Caribbean region occupied by the Tainos and Kalinagos. Belize alone is twice the size of Jamaica. The states were divided into villages which were ruled by batabs. There were all chosen from the noble class so this post was also hereditary. They were to see to it that the laws and policies were enforced. Because the Maya were constantly engaged in defending themselves from neighbouring invaders, the war chiefs or nacoms were also an important part of the government. They were however elected for three years. During their term of office, they were not allowed to drink any strong drink. They were responsible for providing and training soldiers. Religious Beliefs and Practices The Maya were polytheistic. They believed in as many as 166 gods! They had too had a number of myths to explain the mysteries of life including earth and the creation of man. They believed in: The forces of good and evil. Life after death. Heaven and hell. The underworld. There is punishment in the afterlife for those who lived an evil life. There is reward in the afterlife for those who lived a good life. Confessing to the priest on one’s death bed. Offering human sacrifices to the gods, especially slaves. Using incense in the process of communicating with the gods. Having birthday festivals and celebrations in honour of the gods. Keeping the gods happy (appeasing the gods). Gender Relations In Mayan society, the women played a subservient role. Mayan women were not allowed to drink at functions. They could not hold public office. Their main functions were child bearers and home makers. In fact, a Mayan man could divorce his wife if she did not bear him any children. They were also given specific roles. They worked to pay the tribute tax. Weaving and pottery were done exclusively by the women. There were more recreational activities that the men were allowed to participate in. for example there was only one dance in which the men and women were allowed to dance together. All other dances were done by the men together. The men also participated in bow and arrow contests. How did they manage to earn the title of the most advanced civilization? Technology 1. We will do engineering and architecture as a separate item since this was a very important part of Mayan religion and society. Using their limestone and mortar, the Maya constructed the following to create their magnificent empires: -Corbelled arch. -Roads and bridges. -Causeways. -Massive temples with staircases for worship. -Entire cities with huge pyramids were constructed of stones, for example, Chichen Itza and Tikal. -Large public buildings made of limestone and mortar. -Stone stelae with their history depicted on them. 2. They were skilled in Mathematics. 3. They practiced a form of writing known as hieroglyphics. 4. They had books made from the bark of trees. 5. They created a Calendar very similar to ours with 365 days in a year and leap as well. 6. They practiced astrology. They observed the stars and planets and used these to determine the ‘‘right'’ time to plant, reap and even marry. 7. They had three farming techniques to include the slash-and-burn method. -They had a form of currency. Cocoa beans was used for money. -They used irrigation methods. -They used dams and wells to ensure water supply. -They knew and used the art of dyeing. THE EUROPEANS Europe in the 15 century th INFLUENCE OF CATHOLICISM The spiritual powers of the Roman Catholic Church permeated every aspect of life and made the Church the dominant institution in Western Europe. It fostered the desire to spread Christianity in foreign lands. The Pope became the arbitrator of political disputes, particularly those involving the discovery of new lands. Yet new political and religious ideas began to undermine the predominance of Christendom. POLITICAL The archaic feudal system had practically disappeared with the establishment of new city-states and nation-states, namely England, France, Spain, Portugal, and the Italian city-states. Though they retained monarchical systems of government as in feudal period, nationalism replaced the old ideas of an overruling Christian Empire. SPAIN: The marriage of Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile completed the unification of Spain and founded Europe’s most absolute and Catholic monarchy. PORTUGAL: Under the rule of Prince Henry the Navigator and others Portugal took the lead in nautical exploration for new trade routes. To consolidate the economic basis of their power and to rival each other’s progress, monarchies of the nation-states sought new sources of wealth through overseas trade and colonization. SOCIAL Because of the Renaissance and the decay of feudalism, the serfs, society’s lowliest and largest class of manual labourers, were unshackled from the semi-slavery of serfdom; personal enquiry and personal enterprise became the hallmarks of society. A new middle class of merchants and tradesmen came into existence, and above them was the nobility, forming the ruling class. TRADE A lucrative commerce had developed between Europe and the Far East with Venice, Genoa and Florence as the most important trading cities. European articles such as wine, salted fish, furs, woollen goods, and linen cloth were exchanged for silk, muslin, velvets, cotton, dyestuffs, spices, jewels, ivory, and gold in the Orient. These luxuries and exotic items were then transported overland to Europe where they were in great demand by the wealthy and the affluent. But further expansion of the European Oriental trade was hindered by: the dangers and difficulties of the overland route; Venetian and Genoese monopoly of the spice trade; the limited amount of produce transported by pack; the capture of Constantinople by Turks closing one of the best trade routes. The easiest way to overcome all of these difficulties and satisfy demands for Oriental products was to find a new route to the East. TECHNOLOGY Scientific advancement during the Renaissance resulted in wide range of inventions and improvements in ship design which aided maritime exploration: invention of the compass, astrolabe, quadrant, hour glass, sundial, and windlass; the design of ocean going carracks and caravels; the development of printing which spread new information to all levels of society. Learned men believed that the world was a sphere, not a rectangle, and it was therefore possible to reach the EAST by sailing WEST across the Atlantic. One such learned person was Don Cristobal Colon of Genoa. Reasons why Europeans did not travel long distances before the late 15 century th The Europeans thought that the world was flat. They believed that after you reached the end of the world, you would drop off. The Europeans believed that there were horrible sea creatures in the sea so they did not travel long distances. The ships the Europeans owned needed much improvements so they were not suitable for travelling long distances. The Europeans seas were dangerous as there were various conflicts between them and the Muslims so they did not travel long distances. Reasons for European Exploration in the 15 century- ‘’Gold, God, Glory’’ th 1. Europe was divided into a number of kingdoms whose rulers were absolute monarchs. This meant that they had the authority to make whatever decisions they liked. Their subjects (people under their rule) had to accept the king’s decision as final. 2. The Kings of Europe frequently waged war against each other, so as to capture more territories. Each King wanted to be more powerful than each other and they believed that power depended on the amount of land under their control. These Kings were even willing to finance voyages of exploration in order to get more land. They also hoped to find gold which could be used to finance war for their own personal purposes. 3. The discovery of new land therefore meant more space for citizens, land for the landless and job opportunities for the unemployed. 4. The Europeans wanted to find a new sea route to the east. European merchants travelled frequently to places like China, India and North Africa in order to trade. 5. Travel at that time was very dangerous but these merchants still went to distant lands to sell the things they made and to get things they could not grow for themselves. From India, the merchants obtained gold, tea and spices. From Africa: gold, ivory and slaves. From China: silk, spices and tea. The European merchants were able to sell cotton, knives, cutlasses, hoes, and glass beads. 6. The merchants from Venice began to monopolize the trade to the East. They would not let the other European merchants pass through their port. The merchants from Venice became so rich that it aroused the jealousy of the other European merchants. The Spaniards and Portuguese became more determined to find another route to the east. The Renaissance (Period of rebirth of revival of Greek and Roman knowledge) During the period when the Turks controlled some parts of Europe, life was difficult for the people who lived in those parts. Some of them were even captured as salves. Progress at that time slowed almost to a halt. Knowledge gained in previous time almost disappeared as few people went to school. Some people referred to this time as the dark ages. Between 1400 and 1700, the old ideas in art, science, and mathematics started to spread again from Italy to the rest of Europe. The Renaissance was a rebirth of knowledge and learning which resulted in new inventions. Two famous scientists of the period were Galileo Galilei who invented the telescope and Sir Isaac Newton who first explained the force of gravity. The desire for adventure and knowledge was stirred even in sailors, who were now interested in making voyages of exploration. Some of the famous explorers were Christopher Columbus, Vasco da Gama, and Bartholomew Diaz. Technological Improvements Price Henry the Navigator was the son of King John of Portugal. In 1419, he founded a navigation school which trained many of Europe’s sailors. These sailors were now prepared to make long voyages. Sailors learned about cartography which is the skill of mapmaking. During the 15 century, improvements were made in this area so that one of the maps made th was a map of the world (Ptolemy’s map of the world). Christopher Columbus and the ‘’Enterprise of the Indies’’ Christopher Columbus was born in Genoa Italy between 1450 and 1451 and practiced mapmaking along with his two brothers. Columbus showed a keen interest in exploration. To get ships and men to embark on voyages, Christopher Columbus had to find a monarch who was willing to risk money and men for such an expedition. He began to persuade the court of Portugal to support his venture. Columbus’ main point was that he could get to the East by sailing West. By sailing across the Atlantic he claimed that he could reach Cipangu, Marco Polo’s name for Japan. He called this bold adventure ‘’Enterprise of the Indies’’. The Portuguese refused to accept his explanation/his point of view. They were sure that Japan was more than 10 000 miles away. They stated that the plan could not work and that it was too risky. Columbus crossed the border and presented his plans to King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Spain. The Spanish King and Queen were at this time fighting the Moors, a group of Muslims, from North Africa who had colonized a part of the Spanish Empire. They did not have the money to support Columbus. For seven years he tried to get the Spanish Monarchs to support him. He even decided that he was going to get the French to support him. He was on his way to the French when he received word that the Spanish were willing to finance his voyages of exploration in order to beat Portugal in the race to the East.Columbus first set sail on August 3 , rd 1492 and landed in San Salvador in the Bahamas first. His three ships were called theNiña, Pinta, and the Santa María (his flagship). Voyages to the New World (The Americas) First Expedition On August 3, 1492, Columbus sailed from Palos, Spain, with three small ships, the Santa María, commanded by Columbus himself, the Pinta under Martín Pinzón, and the Niña under Vicente Yáñez Pinzón. After halting at the Canary Islands, he sailed due west from September 6 until October 7 , when he changed th th his course to the southwest. On October 10 , a small mutiny was quelled, and on th October 12 , he landed on a small island called San Salvador in the Bahamas. He th took possession for Spain and, with impressed natives aboard, discovered other islands in the neighbourhood. On October 27 , he sighted Cuba and on December th 5 reached Hispaniola. th On Christmas Eve, the Santa María was wrecked on the north coast of Hispaniola, and Columbus, leaving men there to found a colony, hurried back to Spain on the Niña. His reception was all he could wish; according to his contract with the Spanish sovereigns he was made ‘’Admiral of the Ocean Sea’’ and Governor- General of all new lands he had discovered or should discover. Second Expedition Fitted out with a large fleet of 17 ships, with 1,500 colonists aboard, Columbus sailed from Cádiz in October of 1493. His landfall this time was made in the Lesser Antilles, and his new discoveries included the Leeward Islands and Puerto Rico. The admiral arrived at Hispaniola to find the first colony destroyed by the indigenous natives. He founded a new colony nearby, then sailed off in the summer of 1494 to explore the southern coast of Cuba. After discovering Jamaica, he returned to Hispaniola and found the colonists, interested only in finding gold, completely disorderly; his attempts to enforce strict discipline led some to seize vessels and return to Spain to complain of his administration. Leaving his brother Bartholomew in charge at Hispaniola, Columbus also returned to Spain in 1496. Third Expedition On his third expedition, in 1498, Columbus was forced to transport convicts as colonists, because of the bad reports on conditions in Hispaniola and because the novelty of the New World was wearing off. He sailed still farther south and made his landfall on Trinidad. He sailed across the mouth of the Orinoco River (in present day Venezuela) and realized that he saw a continent, but without further exploration he hurried back to Hispaniola to administer his colony. In 1500, an independent governor arrived, sent by Isabella and Ferdinand as the result of reports on the wretched conditions in the colony, and he sent Columbus back to Spain in chains. The admiral was immediately released, but his favour was on the wane; other navigators, including Amerigo Vespucci, had been in the New World and established much of the coast line of NE South America. Fourth Expedition It was 1502 before Columbus finally gathered together four ships for a fourth expedition, by which he hoped to re-establish his reputation. If he could sail past the islands and far enough west, he hoped he might still find lands answering to the description of Asia or Japan. He struck the coast of Honduras in Central America and coasted southward along an inhospitable shore, suffering terrible hardships, until he reached the Gulf of Darién. Attempting to return to Hispaniola, he was marooned on Jamaica. After his rescue, he was forced to abandon his hopes and return to Spain. Although his voyages were of great importance, Columbus died in relative neglect, having had to petition King Ferdinand in an attempt to secure his promised titles and wealth. Problems Columbus faced while at sea Columbus first stopped at the Canary Islands to do some repairs. After 3 weeks without sight of land, the sailors began to murmur among themselves wondering if there was really land beyond the horizon. In the mid- Atlantic, they noticed the compasses in their ships were no longer pointing to the true north. Columbus had to explain that it was a normal occurrence. There was a variation in the compass because the ships were going so far west that the natural pull of the magnetic north was altered. After two days at sea without sight of land, the seamen became violent and rebellious. They wanted to return to Europe and Columbus convinced them that land was near and promised that if landfall was not made soon he would turn back. The contact between The Europeans and the Indigenous Peoples The Clash of Cultures The arrival of the Spaniards and the setting up of colonies brought them into contact with the Tainos who lived in the Greater Antilles. The culture or way of life of these two groups was so vastly different that their interaction often resulted in direct conflict. When people from different cultures meet we say that there is a ‘’clash of culture’’. A clash of cultures between the Tainos and the Spaniards led to the destruction or the genocide (extermination or near-extermination of a racial or ethnic group) of the Tainos. The destruction of the Tainos The destruction of the Tainos began shortly after Columbus arrived. On his first voyage, Columbus had left some men behind on the island of Hispaniola when he returned to Spain. Columbus’ men angered the Tainos by stealing their crops and interfering with their women. This caused fights to break out between the Spaniards and Tainos. The Spaniards who were greatly outnumbered were badly beaten and some of them were killed. On Columbus’ 2 voyage, he established a colony called nd Isabella in Hispaniola. As soon as Columbus went away, the Spaniards abandoned working on farms and buildings and forced the Amerindians to provide them with labour. The Tainos, who were usually a peaceful people, resisted the Spaniards and came together to fight against them. However, the Spaniards managed to fight off the Amerindians and on Columbus’ return, they informed him of the events. Columbus immediately organized his men to fight against the Tainos. The Tainos with their wooden spears and bows were no match for the Spaniards with their guns. Changes faced by the Tainos Technology The Spaniards had far superior technology, weapons (guns, steel swords), tools and other inventions to the Tainos. The Tainos, who were still in the Stone Age, had bows, arrows, wooden spears, and wooden clubs, were no match for the Spaniards. The Spaniards also used fierce dogs which could rip the Tainos into pieces. The Tainos were terrified of the bloodhounds. They were only accustomed to small barkless dogs. The Spaniards also rode horses which gave them additional advantage of quick attacks and withdrawals. The Tainos on foot were no match for the well- armed Spaniards on horseback. Enslavement (The Introduction of Amerindian Slavery) Most of the Spanish colonists had come to colonize the New World, in search of riches. They had no sympathy for the peaceful Tainos and enslaved them- that is they forced them to work for the Spaniards. The Tainos were overworked and poorly fed and many of them died. Others drowned while diving for pearls for the Spaniards. The first system of slavery the Tainos were subjected to was called the Repartimiento System. The Repartimiento System was later extended by Ovando who was the first governor of Hispaniola from 1502 to 1509. The new system was called the Encomiendo System. Under this system, grants of Tainos were given to the Spanish Settlers. The Tainos were to work for the Spaniards who were responsible for Christianizing and educating them. The Spaniards had no intention of educating the Tainos and the encomienda system was just a means of obtaining labour from the Tainos. There were no paid wages and no schools nor churches were built in Taino villages. Land Ownership Before the arrival of the Spaniards, land was communally owned. This meant that land did not belong to individuals but to the entire tribe. Each family was given to a plot of land to work so they could feed themselves. The coming of the Spaniards changed the system of land ownership because the Spaniards took the lands belonging to the Tainos. Most of the land now was privately owned and the Tainos could no longer use it for their own purposes. Destruction of food crops The Tainos were subsistent farmers and depended on their conucos (family plots) for food. When the adults were taken away as slaves, the children who were left behind often starved, since they were unable to take care of the crops and feed themselves. For those Tainos who continued to grow their crops on the conucos, there was a new problem. The Spaniards often allowed their cattle to graze on the crops belonging to the Tainos, destroying them. Government The Taino system of government was replaced by Spanish rule. The caciques could no longer protect their people as even the caciques were captured and killed or enslaved. The Spaniards now demanded that takes be paid to them. Taxes were paid in gold or in free labour. Disease The Spaniards brought many diseases which were new to the Tainos. Since they had no immunity to these diseases, many of them died quickly. Diseases such as small pox, measles and even the common flu killed many Tainos. Social Changes Family life was disrupted as adults were taken away and children left on their own. The frustration and hopelessness felt by many Tainos caused them to commit suicide. Some of them also practiced infanticide (killing of babies). They hoped to save them from the cruelty of the Spaniards. The Spaniards forced the Tainos to accept their religion, manner of dress, and did not allow them to participate in their festivals. Survival of Amerindian Culture in the Caribbean Names Many places in Trinidad and Tobago still carry Amerindian names. For example, Caroni and Naparima. Even trees in the forests carry Amerindian names, e.g. Balata. Many animals have names given by Amerindians, e.g. iguana, agouti and manicou. Foods Foods eaten by the Amerindians included cassava cakes. These were made by grating the cassava (manioc) and squeezing out the juice before baking the cassava flour which was left. Today Caribbean people used cassava to make flour, cassava chips, pone, bakes, and bread. They also made starch. Apart from cassava, maize (corn) was another staple of the Amerindians. It is today used in the following ways: corn flour, corn bread, corn pie, corn starch. Their rich diet included a variety of fresh fruits, e.g. guava, pawpaw, hog plum, cashew, and pineapple. They also use sweet potato and a variety of cooking bananas. The use of hot pepper was common among the Amerindians. A favourite dish was pepperpot. The Amerindians also made a sauce called cassareep from cassava juice, salt and pepper. Another common method of cooking among the Amerindians was barbecuing. Barbecuing is also an Amerindian word. European Settlement in the New World Since Columbus had sailed in the name of the King and Queen and Spain, the land he ‘’discovered’’ now belonged to Spain. This aroused the jealousy of the other European nations who were now determined to acquire land for themselves in the New World. The Treaty of Tordesillas (1494) In 1493, both Spain and Portugal claimed the East. The Pope, Alexander VI, issued a Bull, Inter Cetera, dividing the world between Portugal and Spain by a line 100 leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands. In the Treaty of Tordesillas, Portugal and Spain moved the line of demarcation to 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands. All unclaimed lands to the east of this line were Portuguese, and to the west were Spanish. The Europeans established settlements in the New World in the larger colonies where gold was found, fertile land for growing tropical crops, and friendly natives were present. Spain’s Monopoly System The Spanish Government believed that the wealth of its empire in the Americas existed solely to increase the power of Spain. This meant that a monopoly of trade with her colonies and close control over buying and selling by colonists. All goods produced in the New World had to be exported to Spain and no other country. Everything the colonists bought had to be imported from Spain itself and carried in Spanish ships. The Council of the Indies had supreme control over all the colonies in the New World. The House of Trade The House of Trade was established by the Spanish King in 1503 to control all trade between Spain and her colonies. This was done to protect the trade and keep out foreigners. All ships coming and going had to leave from and return to Seville. No ship could leave port or discharge its cargo on arrival without the permission of the House of Trade. In order to trade with Spanish territories, a license had to be given by the House of Trade. The Challenge to Spain’s Monopoly System European nations were not prepared to accept Spain’s claim to all the wealth from the New World. The European powers no longer just fought in Europe. Each country wanted to weaken its rivals by capturing their overseas bases and interrupting the flow of trading goods: silver and gold. In these ways, they could damage the rival powers in Europe. The Dutch broke the Spanish Monopoly. Pirates and Privateers The sailors who raided the Spanish ships and settlements were different types. Some captains went out in their own ships. Others were financed by merchants or noblemen and sometimes even by the Government. Some traded slaves and goods as well as raiding. They were given many names (pirates, seas dogs, freebooters, privateers). In the 16 century, European countries other than Spain had only small th fighting navies. When war broke out, the governments would take over, or command the merchant ships and fit them out with guns. They would also issue letters of marque to captains or merchant ships. The letter gave authority to attack enemy ports and ships. Captains had to hand over part of their treasure but they could sell the rest. Colonization of the Americas by European Nations 1500s- The Spanish Empire claimed the entire Caribbean and most of Latin America. Hispaniola, Puerto Rico, Cuba, Jamaica, and Trinidad were settled. (1612)- British colonized Bermuda. (1623)- British colonized St. Kitts. (1627-1635)- British colonized Barbados, Nevis, Antigua, Montserrat, Anguilla, Tortola, and the Windward Islands. (1635)- French contested colonization of St. Kitts. French colonized Guadeloupe and Martinique. (1655)- English conquered Jamaica. (1650-1680)- Dutch colonized Saba, St. Eustatius, Saint Martin, Curacao, Bonaire, Aruba, Tobago, St. Croix, Tortola, Anegada, Virgin Gorda, Anguilla, and the U.S. Virgin Islands. (1664-1674)- St. Eustatius changed hands ten times in British- Dutch disputes over the island. (1697)- Spain ceded Haiti to France. France controlled Tortuga. (1750s)- Turks and Caicos captured by the British. (1761-1778)- British captured Dominica from France. 1762-1783)- British and French forces contested for Saint Vincent and the Grenadines in which Britain won and St. Vincent and the Grenadines came under British rule. CARIBBEAN ECONOMY AND SLAVERY The Economic Revolution The Sugar Revolution Definition: A rapid change from tobacco to sugar as the basic cash crop that occurred in the mid-to-late 17 century in the British and French West Indians th islands. The sugar revolution brought great social, economic and political changes to the islands it occurred in. It is most drastically seen in the history of Barbados where it occurred roughly in one decade (1640-1650). Causes of the Sugar Revolution: 1. For a long time, tobacco from the West Indies had been preferred. However, by the 17c., tobacco from the West Indies was facing competition from tobacco from Virginia in North America, which was superior in quality and quantity. 2. There was an increasing demand for sugar in Europe to be used as a sweetener for teas and other beverages. 3. The Caribbean islands had favourable climatic conditions on which sugar could be grown. 4. There was a glut on the market so the price of tobacco fell. Social changes: 1. The black population increased with the importation of African slaves to produce sugar. 2. The white population decreased as the whites returned to Europe or moved onto other islands because they did not want to work alongside the blacks. 3. Society changed from a free citizenry to a slave society as the Africans were enslaved on the plantations and the small number of whites ruled society. ‘’Free’’ meant ‘’white’’’ and ‘’slave’’ meant ‘’black’’. 4. Absenteeism (practice of owning land in one country but living in another) became a feature of West Indian society as planters owned plantations in the West Indies but lived in Europe. Economic changes: 1. The price of land inflated as there was an increasingdemand for land. 2. The number of landholders decreased. Small land owners were put out of business and small plots of land could not accommodate the amount of sugarcane necessary. Many small holdings were grouped together into large estates, under the ownership of a rich planter. 3. The number of landholdings increased as sugar could only be grown economically on large estates. 4. Monoculture (the concentration on the cultivation of a single crop) became the backbone of the Caribbean economy as sugar became the main crop that was relied upon. This was a dangerous foundation for the Caribbean economy which would eventually lead to much distress. Political changes: The Proprietorship System of Government was replaced by The Old Representative System of Government. The Old Representative System of Government had a Governor and an Assembly. Barbados had its assembly set up in 1639. This was the first Assembly to be established in the West Indies. The planter-class ruled the assembly and made the decisions as they held many seats. It is said that the Dutch made the West Indies ‘’black’’ as they provided the labourers from Africa and put up the capital needed by the planters to set up production. Change from Logwood to Mahogany Logwood was the first major timber export from the Caribbean and was produced mainly in Belize. It was very valuable for its dye, which was used by wood manufacturers. Spanish ships carrying logwood were often attacked by British pirates, who stole the cargo and resold it. However, the buccaneers soon decided that cutting the logwood trees themselves was an easier way and safer way to make a profit. These new producers caused a glut on the market. This resulted in falling prices in the 1760s and so mahogany replaced logwood as Belize’s main wood export. Since mahogany wood was harder than logwood, the economy of Belize (renamed British Honduras after it was colonized by Britain) changed drastically. Logwood was a small tree which required only a few men to cut it. Slavery started in Belize in 1724 but there were relatively few Africans until the 1770s after which the number of Africans expanded to more than three quarters of the population of about 5 000 people. Mahogany production created new jobs, e.g, as huntsmen, the axe men and cattle men and these jobs were done by skilled slaves. The huntsmen went into the forest to find mahogany trees, the axe men did the chopping and trimming of the trees, and the cattle men took care of the animals used to transport the logs. These enslaved men, their masters and overseers had to cover long distances to find the trees, which did not grow in clumps like the logwood but were located singly and often far apart. This meant that sites were temporary and that enslaved men were away from their families for long period of time so logging had to be seasonal. After the logging season ended, families were reunited and celebrations took place at the community festivals where the enslaved interacted with each other. This interaction among the enslaved created a new Belizean creole culture. Tobago and British Guiana are other territories which experienced the changeover from logwood to mahogany. The Coming of the Africans The most important change occurred as a result of the sugar revolution was a need for a large amount of skilled labour that was not available in the West Indies. The first source of labour which Europeans experimented with was that of the Amerindians. Under the Encomienda and Repartimiento systems, many natives lost their lives. The genocide of these indigenous peoples meant that Europeans were forced to seek alternative sources of labour. They turned to the indentureship system. Poor whites were attracted to West Indian plantations to perform manual labour. They too proved unsuccessful as these indentured servants were unaccustomed to plantation life. As a result, another source was necessary. Why African Slavery? The main religion practiced by Europeans during this period was Christianity. Europeans were predominately Roman Catholics. The British however were Anglicans. Europeans believed it was their God-given duty to convert non- Christians. In addition, it was believed that Africans were direct descendants of Ham (one of Noah’s sons) who was condemned to a life of servitude. Europeans believed Africans/blacks were made to be slaves. Bartholomew de Las Casas suggested the use of African slaves. Slavery already existed in Africa. Persons were made slaves for debts, punishment, crimes, marriages, etc., making it easy to access the large numbers required. Europeans felt that they were not introducing anything new into Africa so there was nothing wrong with what they were doing. Sugar was now the major export commodity of the West Indies and demanded a large labour force. Slavery was seen as a ‘’necessary evil’’ because for sugar cultivation and manufacture to be profitable, a large, readily available, and cheap labour supply was essential. The Amerindian population had declined so the remaining population could not provide an adequate labour force. Africans were available in large numbers. Planters saw a cost advantage in the use of African slaves. An African purchased was a slave for life and the children of slaves became the properties of their masters. Africans were skilled agriculturists and accustomed to manual labour in a tropical climate. The Caribbean and Africa had similar tropical climates. Africa is closer to the Caribbean than Europe and the Trans-Atlantic voyage was assisted by the trade winds blowing east to west. As the plantation system developed planters no longer wanted to give prime sugar land as incentives to attract indentured servants and so they began to rely more heavily on African slaves, since there was no need to give them land. A look at West African Societies before the arrival of the Europeans Slavery existed in West Africa long before the Europeans arrived in 1515 for debt, as punishment, and as sacrifice. West African societies were very diverse, prosperous and consisting of states at various stages of development. Africa maybe divided in two main regions: The Savannah States (Ghana, Mali, Songhai) These consisted of fertile grass land and was ideal for farming, agriculture and cattle and goat rearing. Weaving, leather making, and crafting were also popular means of earning a living. Trade to the north was also very profitable and goods such as salt, gold, ivory, kola nuts as well as European and Asian goods were the basis of this trade which soon expanded to include slaves. This trade led to the transformation of small settlements into large cities, along government and powerful empires. Thus,there was a need for administrators, accountants, law enforcers, tax collectors, and merchants. Political Organization During the 15c., when the trade in African slaves was in existence, the Songhai Empire was ruling. Before the rise of this empire, the Mali Empire had been the major Savannah Empire. The Mali had been taken over by another thriving empire- Ghana Empire. These powerful empires had arisen because of the revenue gained from the high taxes which the merchants were required to pay the rulers for passing through their lands. The Forest States (Oyo, Benin, Dahome, Asante) The Forest States were increasing in status shortly before the arrival of the Europeans. Slaves were taken almost fully from this region due to its proximity to the coast. The people in these areas were generally agriculturist planting yam, cassava, bananas and rearing small animals such as chickens, pigs and fowls. The forest provided an abundance of fruits, river teemed with fish and hunting was practiced. There were also potters, weavers, sculptors, mines, and metal workers. Initially, these people practiced small scale trading but later provided the north with Ebony, Leopard skin and Pepper. Their wealth grew and industries thrived as a result of the slave trade. Political Organization By the time the slave trade began, there were no vast empires in the forest region like those of the savannah. Each forest state had its own unique pattern of government. The Yoruba people were one of the most organized in the forest region. There were many towns which served as centres for trade. In every town could be found farmers, priests and craftsmen. Each town was a small kingdom ruled by a king or Obah who controlled the neighbouring forest lands. The Edo people lived in the state of Benin. The rulers of Benin called themselves Obas of Benin because they copied from the Yoruba people. However, the Obas of Benin were more powerful than those of the Yoruba. The state of Benin was situated at end of the busy trade roots leading to the savannah town. The kings gained a lot of riches by taxing the merchants. Before the arrival of the Europeans, the Edo merchants sold ivory, pepper and ebony. The merchants also sold cloth and jewellery. Religion in West African Societies Between AD 1000 and 1500, Islam spread from the Mediterranean into the Sudanic belt, the region of Africa which lies to the south of the Sahara Desert and to the empires of Sudan. Islam was carried into the forest zone to the south where it competed with tribal religions and finally into conflict with ancestor worship and each tribe was united into the common worship of tribal gods who were often mythical. In Kingdoms such as Benin and Oyo, the immediate ancestors of Lings were seen as gods. Each god had a specialized function but all were responsible for fertility of their followers, fetishism, or the harnessing of impersonal forces of the universe by incarnations and charms was prevalent everywhere. A comparison between the Forest and Savannah States Both were traders and agriculturists, but in the savannah a great use of currency (cowry shell, gold) was employed. Hunting existed in both regions but was more popular in the forest states. They both had organized systems of government. Trade was better developed in the savannah, building and construction was more advanced and printing was practiced. Areas from which slaves were taken Slaves were taken mainly from West Africa. Slaves were taken from the forest states (Oyo, Benin, Dahome, and Asante). They came from that section of West Africa stretching from the Senegal River in the north to the Congo River in the south. The various areas along the West African Coast have been given different names, e.g. Grain Coast, Ivory Coast, Gold Coast, and Slave Coast. Methods used to acquire Slaves Slaves were sold at auction to the highest bidder. Slave scramble. In a slave scramble, Africans were divided into groups for which set prices were fixed. At a signal, the planters rushed on board to assess which groups offered the best quality for the least money. How slaves were captured and their journey to the coast The slaves were captured in tribal wars or raids on villages. Boys and men between the ages of sixteen and forty were sought especially. Old persons, women and children were left behind or killed in the raids. Those captured were marched to the coast. The slaves were assembled in coffles and were often chained together. Speed was essential as a captain was waiting at the coast for the slaves. Those who did not keep up were left behind or punished. Methods used to capture slaves Surprise attacks- The slave raiders often used the element of surprise. Africans were ambushed and kidnapped as they worked or travelled away from the community. Under such conditions they would have been outnumbered with little chance of escaping or calling for help. As people ran from their burning homes, many were grabbed and taken away. The use of trickery- Sometimes slave hunters enticed people to go with them promising to take them to exciting new places and to see many wonderful things. Some Africans went willingly only to be captured and forced to make a trip away from their home. Tribal differences- The animosity which often existed between the tribes was exploited by the slave traders. Whereas Africans would’ve been reluctant to sell a member of their own tribe, they usually would’ve been more willing to sell a member of the enemies’ tribe. Enemies captured during tribal warfare were therefore sold to the Europeans. Items used as a medium of exchange for slaves The items used as a medium of exchange for slaves include knives, guns, alcohol, beads, cloth, and silk. What happened to the slaves as they arrived at the coast? When the slaves arrived at the coast, slave quarters called barracoons were ready to receive them. The initial examination of the slaves took place outside the barracoons which were as dark dungeons. Usually the ship surgeon examines them on the beach. They were stripped naked and placed into two groups: the sound ones and the rejects. The rejected ones had ailments. The sound ones were branded on the chest with a red hot iron, signifying the country that they will be shipped to. The slave sales then came. After, the slaves were placed on board ships waiting to be transported to the New World. The Organization of the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade The organization of the slave trade was placed in the hand of a company which was given the sole right by a particular nation to trade in slaves on the coast of West Africa, to erect and maintain forts necessary for the protection of the trade and transport and sell slaves in the West Indies. Individuals, that is free traders or interlopers, were excluded. The British established the Company of Royal Adventurers trading to Africa in 1663 and replaced it in 1672 by the Royal African Company. The French established the French West Indian Company in 1673 and in 1674 it was transferred to the Senegal Company. The Dutch trade was given the name Dutch West Indian Company in 1621. These slaves trading companies established trading forts called factors. Factors were in charge of these forts. The responsibility of these factors was to purchase slaves from the Africans and to keep them in barracoons, they were also responsible for overseeing the large complex credit system. The slave trade was one side of the triangular trade linking Europe, West Africa and the Americas. The trip from Europe was the first leg of the triangular trade. The traders involved in this leg of the trade had to ensure that they had the financial support of the national company or the sponsorship of independent private people before they set out to obtain slaves in Africa. This sponsorship included the provision of suitable ships, adequate crew, supplies of food and water, proper insurance coverage against loss at sea from pirate attacks, in addition to manufactured goods to exchange in Africa. Ships left the European ports (Bristol and Liverpool) carrying textiles, guns and other metal goods to forts exchanged for slaves who were taken to Bridgetown, Barbados and Kingston, Jamaica. On the return journey from the Caribbean to England, they carried sugar on the return journey. The Middle Passage The Middle Passage refers to the journey across the Atlantic Ocean from the coast of West Africa to the New World. During the period of slavery, this journey lasted from 6 weeks to 3 months. The duration depended on the weather and the exact distance to be covered. Many slaves saw the ocean for the first time when they arrived on the coast after their first capture. The sound of water and the sight of the huge vessel riding at anchor filled them with great fear and amazement. Their fear increased when they were made to board the vessel and saw Europeans for the first time. According to Equiano, ‘’I was now persuaded that they were going to kill me.’’, the different complexion and strange language spoken by the Europeans only served to confirm the belief in the minds of Africans that they would be killed. When the ship started on its journey the slaves were packed in the hold of the ship without even sufficient room to turn. The heat in the hold of the ship was overbearing due to the fact that the ship always travelled in the tropics. It was made worse by the usual overcrowding. The air in the hold soon became unfit for breathing. There was the stench of filth, perspiration and vomit. Disease spread easily under these conditions and the groans of the dying could sometimes be heard. The slaves often suffered from circulatory problems brought up from lying all day in the same position. To reduce this effect, the slaves were brought up on deck one day for exercise. While on deck the slaves were always closely guarded to prevent them from jumping overboard. As an added precaution nettings were placed along the sides of the vessel. Despite these measures however, a few slaves did jump into the ocean. Some of them may have hoped to swim back to Africa, whilst others would have looked forward to the after-life, preferring death to the misery aboard the ship. For those who jumped overboard and caught, the punishment was severe. Arrival in the West Indies On arrival in the New World, the slaves were physically weak and mentally depressed. If sold immediately the slave captains would only have obtained a low price for them. To ensure a good price, they sometimes allowed the slaves a few days of fresh air to refresh themselves. They were fed fresh fruits to improve their skin tone and carbohydrates and protein to increase weight and strength. Just before the sale, the slaves were oiled in an effort to give them a healthy glow. Effects of the slave trade on West Africa Reduction in the population. Historians estimate that by time the British slave trade ended, some 10-15 million slaves were forcibly taken from their homeland. This obviously led to an artificial decrease in the population. It was to be an annual decline as the slave trade gathered momentum each year until its abolition in the early 19 century (1807). th Families were separated. Parents were crudely snatched, leaving their precious children behind. In some cases, it was the reverse. Children were taken leaving grieving parents behind. Homes were literally destroyed by fire during the raids. The raiders took the young and strong people. These represented the backbone of the economy- the labour force. Needless to say, production declined, particularly in the short run until they were able to start all over again. There was increased distrust among neighbours and even friends. Local production and crafts such as pottery and brass work decreased. Firstly, many skilled persons were taken. Secondly, with the influx of European consumer goods that were exchanged for slaves, there was an increase in the taste and demand for these goods. They were now viewed as better than the local products. The guns and ammunition that were trade items for slaves gave extra security to one group but provided the means for them to raid another group. Many African chiefs became rich from the trade. Some used the profits from the trade to expand their kingdom. One such group was Benin. The trade opened up new routes in the interior of West Africa. Employment was provided for a number of locals. Sadly,they found jobs as cohorts with white slave raiders. Others supplied traders with food on the journey to the coast and so on. Some chiefs charged taxes for the coffles to pass through their area. With this money they were able to develop their territory. Other chiefs concentrated on the slave trade and the profits to be had from it rather than their political duties. The Effects of Slavery on the Caribbean Social An artificial increase in the size of the population as literally hundreds of thousands of African slaves were imported annually into the New World. A change in the racial composition of the society. Before the Sugar Revolution the majority of the population was white and the minority black. By the mid-18 century,blacks far outnumbered whites, in some cases the ratio th was as much as 25:1. A host of new laws were introduced to regulate and define the relationship between master and slaves, for example, the Deficiency Act was passed to deal with the unequal ration. Then each Colonial Power drafted their own set of laws: Spanish: Siete Partidas, French: Code Noir and the English colonies enacted their individual Slave Codes. A whole new culture was introduced- the African culture. There was a small amount of mixing of the two cultures(hybridization/creolization) as well. A new ‘’breed’’ of person was introduced. These were the mulattoes. They were the off spring of the whites and blacks. Society became highly stratified. A person was now judged firstly by colour and then wealth, so that even a poor white was deemed to be of a higher status than a rich mulatto. Economic The pattern of landownership changed. Before sugar and slavery, there were many farmers owning small plots of land on which they grew tobacco and other cash crops. This pattern changed to a few landowners owning large estateson which they cultivated sugarcane to be manufactured into raw muscovado sugar for export to the Mother Country. The price of land increased dramatically towards the end of the 17 century and into the 18 century as more and more sugar estates were th th being established. Large amounts of capital were invested in the sugar industry. Most of this capital however came from the Mother Country itself. Soon the West Indian planters became indebted to (European) British bankers, investors and merchants. The plantation owners became very wealthy. Some of them went back to Europe to live in comfort and style, showing off their wealth. The expression ‘’as rich as a West Indian planter’’ became the accepted description of any wealthy person. England collected a lot of taxes and duties and shared in the profits of the Sugar Industry. Later, she would use much of this money to finance her Industrial Revolution. The Triangular trade provided employment in a number of areas from shipbuilding to insurance, to porters and warehouse landlords among others. The European countries: France, Portugal, Britain, the Netherlands (Holland), and Denmark were directly involved in the slave trade. Spain did not directly participate in the slave trade but chiefly purchased slaves from the Portuguese and English traders in Africa. Mahogany, logwood, cotton, coffee, and cocoa production Coffee was grown as an export crop during the days of slavery in the following colonies: Jamaica Dominica Grenada St. Lucia The forest or trees had to be burnt and cut and the land prepared for the coffee seedlings. This, of course, was done by the slaves as they worked their way on the steep slopes of the hillsides. They then marked out the fields in even rows with an equal distance from each other. The land was then levelled with terraces. Why? (a) For convenience of working in the fields (b) To prevent soil erosion The field slaves planted ground provisions, for example, cassava between the young trees. This provided quick income for the estates until the coffee was matured. On most of the estates also, trees were planted to protect the plants from strong winds. Constant weeding of the fields was done. At reaping time which was usually from the end of August to the beginning of September, the slaves would go out to the fields as early as it dawned to pick berries. This exercise continued until about midday when they had a break for lunch. After lunch, they resumed picking until sunset or it was too dark to see, whichever occurred first. At the end of each packaging session, a Negro slave driver checked the basket of each slave. Those whose baskets were not full were lashed. Another set of slaves was responsible for passing the berries through a pumping/pulping mill. This process also allowed for the removal of the skin from the berries. The ‘’naked’’ berries were then washed in a certain cistern. Again it was the job of the slaves to ensure that the cisterns contained enough water for thewashing process. After they were washed, the slaves spread them out on a platform or glacis to dry in the drying house. Meanwhile, the old and sick slaves and children sat and cleanedthe coffee. That is, they picked out the bad/spoilt berries and threw them away and stored the ‘’good’’ ones in a granary. Another set of slaves packed the good beans for export on carts which were then driven by the slaves to the port where they were stacked on the waiting ship. The Work of the Slaves in Cotton Production Cotton was grown in: Dominica, Grenada, Montserrat, St. Vincent, Jamaica, and British North America- chiefly Louisiana. The slaves would clear the land and then dig holes for the cotton seeds to be planted. The seeds were planted one metre apart. The slaves continuously weeded and fertilized the soil using animal manure. Other cash crops were planted between to prevent soil erosion. When the cotton bolls burst this was an indication that they were ready for harvesting! The slaves then picked the crop boll by boll using their bare hands. The bolls did not open all at the same time so the slaves were to keep moving up and down the rows to ensure that they got all the ripe cottons. Each slave was given a sack to put the fluffy white bolls in. Slave drivers checked the amount in each sack and administered lashes to those slaves who did not meet the minimum required amount. The slaves then emptied their sacks and hurried back to the fields to resume picking. The bolls were then spread out on a platform to dry. Old and sick slaves, joined by the children, picked out any trash or leaves that may have been gathered with the bolls. Another set of slaves separated the fibres in the boll. They were then packed and shipped off. The Work of the Slaves in the Cocoa Industry Cocoa was produced chiefly in Jamaica, St. Vincent, Dominica and Grenada. The slaves would clear the land and plant the cuttings directly. It took about five (5) years for the trees to grow to maturity but the best harvest was after eight years. The second option is to plant the seedlings that are grown in a nursery. The seedlings wereallowed to grow to a certain height before they weretransplanted. The slaves then planted cash crops around the cocoa plants to increase the humidity while providing shade. The pods took about five and a half months to mature so there were two harvesting seasons for this industry. Meanwhile, the slaves constantly weeded the fields. When the pods were ready for harvesting, the first gang of slaves, armed with machetes, moved into the fields to cut the pods swiftly from the tree. They dropped these in the baskets that they had been provided with. Since they had to cover a wide area, these were usually the older or stronger slaves. The second gang used their machetes to split the pods open to enable them to remove the pulpy or flesh fruit inside. The fruit was then put to dry and ferment. This took about five to seven days in the sun. The pulp drained away leaving just the beans. In Grenada, slaves danced on the beans to give them a polished look. This attracted the buyer faster than dull beans. The beans were then packed for export. The Work of the Slaves in the Forestry Industry Logwood and mahogany were produced in British Guiana, Jamaica, Tobago, and British Honduras (Belize) but the latter was the chief supplier before Emancipation. Only the strong males were selected for work in the logwood and mahogany industries. Logwood Logwood is a dyewood that grows plentiful in Belize. It was used to dye woolen goods, black, grey, purple and dark red. The slaves along with a white overseer, went to the forest for a number of days or even weeks. They too were armed with a machete for cutting their way through the forest and an axe to chop down the trees. The whites had guns to shoot games. At the end of each day, the men cooked, smoked tobacco and even drank rum together. It may sound like fun but there was a lot of hard work to be done before this and it was basically a lonely life for these male slaves. Arrangements were then made to get the lumber to the ports. Mahogany By 1770, there was more logwood on the market than was needed. This is known as a glut. This resulted in a dramatic fall in the price being offered on the market. In addition, the development of cheaper man-made dyes in Europe led to a decrease in the demand for logwood so the settlers shifted to mahogany. By 1779, mahogany replaced logwood and dominated the social, economic and political life of British Honduras until the mid-20 century. Mahogany was required th for shipbuilding and to a lesser extent, cabinet making. Wood cutting was seasonal and required the slaves to spend long periods away from their family. The mahogany trees had to be found, cut and trimmed. The logs were then taken through temporary paths to the nearest riverside. They were then formed into rafts and floated down river. There were basically three (3) groups of slaves that were involved in this strenuous exercise and the numbers ranged from a minimum of ten (10) to a maximum of fifty (50). A foreman or captain was responsible for coordinating the gangs’ activities. The Huntsman He was very important to the process. He was regarded as a skilled slave. His job was to search for the mahogany trees. Unlike logwood which grows along river banks in groups, mahogany was scattered throughout the forests and must be searched out among the other trees and dense undergrowth. The axe men were the ones to cut the trees down. They wereusually the ones also to clear a path through which the logs were dragged. This gang was responsible for trimming the trees after they had fallen. What were the similarities and differences in the forestry industry? Similarities -Only strong males were used. -The males stayed away from families and friends for long periods. -The tools and tasks were similar. -The presence of white supervisors and overseers. Differences -Mahogany slaves spent a longer time in the fields. -The huntsman or skilled slave was needed. -Different organization of labour. -Logwood slaves enjoyed certain ‘’recreational activities’’ at the end of their working time. Plantation Society: Divisions among the ethnic groups (social stratification) and occupations of each group Plantation Society: The rigidly stratified system of social and economic relations enforced on plantations in the Americas. Divisions among slaves At the top of the slave social ladder were the domestic slaves. They were then followed by the artisan or skilled slaves. The field slaves or praedial slaves were at the bottom of the slave social ladder. The slaves used mainly skin tone and the type of work they did as factors to determine their social status. Other factors included: leadership skills, age, treatment which they enjoyed on the estate, and personal possessions. Divisions among whites The planters or attorneys were at the top of the social ladder of the whites. They were followed by the overseers, bookkeepers, and indentured servants. The whites used education, family background and wealth as factors to determine their social status. Occupations Whites Planning estate work Supervising labour Administrating punishment Teaching the slaves skills Coloureds Nannies Cooks Domestic Slaves Blacks Carpenters Blacksmiths Taylors Factory workers Wheel rights Coopers Masons Prepare and harvest plants Reasons why free coloureds had less status than whites They were descendants of Black slaves They were less wealthy than whites and so were disadvantaged when it came to holding certain positions in society They were generally less educated than whites What factors were used by whites to determine slaves’ social status? Their skills (carpenters, coopers, masons) Strength (muscular build, size) Age (youthfulness) Health Leadership qualities Country/place of birth Complexion Special medicinal skills Degree of loyalty which they demonstrated to their masters What privileges were enjoyed by whites on the estate? Better jobs Better living quarters Better food Payment Respected Had rights to bear arms More educated Right to vote They could influence political decisions as they were members of parliament Visit their homeland Privileges enjoyed by coloured slaves (mulattoes) Some lived in the Great House (basement) Generally better fed than blacks Had access to books and could read Better dressed than blacks Organization of a typical 18 century Sugar Plantation th Sugar estate lands were divided into: 1. Sugarcane fields 2. Pasture lands (animals) 3. Woodlands (building slave huts & fuel for boiling houses) 4. Vegetable gardens (vegetables for whites) 5. Provision grounds (where slaves got their food to sell) 6. Work yards 7. Living quarters Buildings on the Sugar Plantations and their use The Mill- grinding/crushing of cane to make sugar. Boiling House- cane was clarified by heating with white lime, cane juice evapourated, leaving a mixture of sugar crystals and molasses. Curing House- for weeks, excess molasses dripped through small holes at the bottom of the hogsheads leaving muscovado sugar behind. Distillery (Still House)- molasses skimmed of cane juice was converted into rum. Trash House- crushed cane was stored here to be used as fuel. Work Shops- this is where skilled craftsmen made barrels, carts, wagons, etc. Great House- largest house on the estate, house of the planter and his family, easy access to the road, usually stood on top of a hill where all could be seen. Overseers and bookkeepers’ quarters- used for living by the overseers and bookkeepers and also as offices. Slave Huts- no real architecture, small and just enough to sleep in. Store House- supplies, tools, chemicals. Hospital- ‘’Hot House’’, where sick slaves were taken care of. G A O L- where slaves were punished. SUGAR PRODUCTION PROCESS Cultivating/planting: The field slaves prepared the land for cultivation at the end of August. The slaves dug the holes, put animal manure in them, then placed cane cuttings called ratoons and lightly covered them with soil. The canes were planted just before the rainy season, as they grew, the slaves weeded the fields, moulded (refilled the holes with soil that was removed). The canes removed the dry trash from the cane stock. The canes took 14- 18 months to mature. Harvesting: When the canes were ripe the slaves, armed with machetes and cutlasses, cut the canes and removed the outer leaves. The reaped canes were then tied into bundles and transported to the mill in carts or wagons within 48 hours to prevent deterioration of the sucrose content. MANUFACTURING OF SUGAR After the canes were unloaded they were fed by hand into the mill, which consisted of three pairs of rotating iron rollers. Here the canes were crushed and the juice was extracted. The extracted juice was conveyed by a gutter from the mill to the boiling house where it was emptied into the copper clarifier called the syphon where it was heated with white lime. The impurities rose as scum to the surface and were skimmed off and put aside to be used in the making of rum. The head boiler ladled the purified juice into successive boilers where it was boiled. There were about three to six boilers, each smaller and hotter than the previous one, hung over a fire. As the hot juice passed through the boilers, it was constantly stirred by the slaves until it became thick and dark brown in colour. After it boiled for some time, the head boiler tested its readiness by stretching the mixture between his thumb and forefinger. This is the crystallization process. The sugar crystals mixed with molasses were ladled into large troughs to cool. After the sugar had cooled, it was placed on sloping platforms for about three weeks to allow the molasses to drain off. The molasses was collected and later used in the making of rum. The sugar which remained in the barrels was called muscovado. The barrels were sealed and ready for shipment. The sealed barrels of sugar crystals were loaded onto carts and taken to the coast. They were loaded and rolled onto the canoes which took them to the waiting ships. On arrival in Europe, the sugar was further refined at one of the chief ports. This process made the sugar crystals finer. From the Caribbean to Britain The planter would have made prior arrangements wit

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