Migratory Movements in the Caribbean (Pre-Columbian to 1838) PDF

**MODULE ONE** **OBJECTIVE TWO -- THE HISTORICAL PROCESS** **MIGRATORY MOVEMENTS WITHIN THE REGION FROM PRE-COLUMBIAN TIMES TO 1838** The ancestors of the pre-Columbian Amerindians (so called because their existence in the region pre-dated the arrival of Columbus) may have come out of North-Easte...

**MODULE ONE** **OBJECTIVE TWO -- THE HISTORICAL PROCESS** **MIGRATORY MOVEMENTS WITHIN THE REGION FROM PRE-COLUMBIAN TIMES TO 1838** The ancestors of the pre-Columbian Amerindians (so called because their existence in the region pre-dated the arrival of Columbus) may have come out of North-Eastern Asia across the frozen Bering Strait to Alaska during the fourth Ice Age -- between 40,000 to 12,000 B.C.E. these people were nomadic. They wandered southward through North, Central and South America, evolving distinct physical and cultural characteristics. The Orinoco Basin and the Guianas in South America were the original homeland of the Arawaks and the Caribs, who migrated northward through the Lesser Antilles to the Greater Antilles from about 300 B.C.E. By 1492, the main indigenous groups which inhabited the region were: - Lucayans -- Bahamas - Tainos -- Cuba, Jamaica, Hispanola and Puerto Rico - Ignerian Arawaks -- Barbados, Trinidad - Kalinagos -- Lesser Antilles - Aztecs -- (Mesoamerica) -- Valley of Mexico, - Maya - Guatemala, Honduras, Belize - Toltec -- North Yucatan Peninsula - Itza -- North Yucatan Peninsula - Inca -- Andes Mountains +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | | Tainos | Kalinagos | +=======================+=======================+=======================+ | Social | Larger settlement | Smaller | | | | | | | Greater involvement | Less involvement | | | in decisions | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Economic | More agrarian | Hunter/gatherers | | | | | | | Slash and burn | Less skilled at | | | agriculture | agriculture | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Political | Hereditary leadership | Strongest warrior | | | | chosen to lead | | | (Cacique) | (Ouboutu) | | | | | | | | Ouboutu was not only | | | | leader and judge but | | | | religious as well | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Military | Less war like | More aggressive due | | | | to limited | | | | agricultural skills; | | | | depends on raiding | | | | tribes to augment | | | | food stores | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Religion | Naturalistic/spiritua | Same as (S/A) | | | l | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ Prior to the arrival of Columbus in 1492, at least three different Amerindian cultures were present in the region. The Ciboney culture migrated into the Greater Antilles via the Bahamas from Florida from as early as 2000 B.C.E. These seemed to have disappeared before the arrival of the Spanish so very little is known about them. The Tainos that arrived in 300 B.C.E. were said to have destroyed the Ciboneys. They were believed to be more technologically advanced, as evidenced by their introduction of the farming style conuco to the region. The Kalinagos were the last group to arrive in the region. Even though they were less technologically advanced and fewer in number than the Tainos, they were skilled in hunting and gathering and this almost ensured their survival. One simply cannot deny the historical importance of the colonization of the Caribbean. In fact, Christopher Columbus' first voyage in 1492 ultimately led to the large-scale migration of Europeans, Africans and Asians to the region. The Spanish, upon "rediscovery" claimed the new Caribbean Islands (the New World) as the property of Spain. Spain was focussed on acquiring as many colonies as possible but their main priority was the search for mineral wealth. In Trinidad, because there was no such wealth, there was no formal structure or settlement. The island was neglected by Spain and was in disarray. The few Spanish settlers claimed the land and assumed the rank of nobility. Whilst there was no competition for land from other Europeans, their occupation was contested by the indigenous people of the region. The tradition of conflict was established. Trade opportunities existed in the Caribbean, facilitating European visitors but limited settlement. Spain enslaved the indigenous people. Under Spanish rule until the late 1700's, the region was characterised by: 1. Underdevelopment 2. Poor standard of living 3. No settlement 4. Conflict 5. Exploitation of the Indians 6. Political neglect -- setting the stage for future anarchy Columbus arrived in 1492 and this was the beginning of the gradual extermination of the Amerindian people. The Indigenous people faced genocide, which is a systematic attempt to destroy a particular race, group or nation. This was done by: - European brought diseases such as Small pox, influenza, syphilis, - Encomienda - Superior weaponry - Amerindians were hunter for sport - Suicide\ - Infant mortality\ - Starvation **THE DEVELOPMENT OF SYSTEMS OF PRODUCTION** **SLASH AND BURN AGRICULTURE** The Tainos practiced slash and burn agriculture in order to add nutrients to the soil and ensure an adequate crop yield. The Tainos practiced a farming style called conuco. This was a variation of the shifting cultivation patters practiced throughout the world. First, they set the land that they wished to cultivate on fire, providing valuable nutrients to the soil. Next, they moulded the soil and added top soil to increase soil fertility. Additionally, several varieties of crops were inter-grown so that one crop would replenish the nutrients removed by the other. Moulding the soil into mounds aerated it and reduced sheet erosion by rain water. Whilst this system may have seemed primitive to the Europeans, it was indeed quite scientific and produced a high success rate. This is considered to be a system of production since it is a means of producing crops for the consumption of the community. This was a more subsistence mode of production, which meant that it was not used to generate mass amounts of the crop but was used instead to satisfy domestic needs. Food was produced on a relatively smaller scale. **Encomienda** 1. The Spanish rediscovery of the Caribbean territories was focused on acquiring colonies and the search for wealth. After finding no wealth the colonies were left unsettled and neglected. 2. To encourage settlers, encomienda was granted. This was the system of land and labour distribution where settlers were given parcels of land and a commensurate amount of Amerindians to cultivate the land. 3. Under the encomienda [the Amerindians were free men not slaves, they were to be made to work and they were to be converted to Christianity.] (Law of Burgos 1512) 4. In actuality the Amerindians were brutally enslaved, starved, abused and harshly punished for even the most trivial offense. 5. In retaliation the Amerindians attempted to run away and sometimes practiced suicide, infanticide and self-harm. 6. The encomienda was one of the earliest systems of production following the Amerindian slash and burn agriculture. The encomienda was more intense than slash and burn because slash and burn was concerned with subsistence farming. Though the encomienda was more commercial it was unsuccessful in being sustainable and in generating profit. While the encomienda was intended as a system of production to generate a profit. The brutality of the system made this impossible leading to little profits and relegating the system to an excuse to settlement. 7. Bartholomew de las Casas, also known as the protector of the Indians, was instrumental in ending the encomienda system. He felt that the system was a thinly disguised form of slavery and the new laws of 1542 ended the encomienda system. This did not mean an end to the abuses because it was replaced by the repartimiento and later by a system of debt peonage. 8. Repartimiento allocated land and workers to the Spanish settlers and afforded [some] rights to the Amerindians in the form of granting of provisions. The Amerindians had to pay a heavy tribute to the encomienderos in the form of food, cloth and labour. 9. Debt peonage is a system of economic enslavement where the person in debt owes his food, his home and his very existence to the overlord. Debt is incurred everyday and the person will not be free until this debt is cleared. **THE PLANTATION SYSTEM** The era of European exploration and discovery spanned from the 15^th^ to the 17^th^ centuries, whereby European aggrandizement, new economic policy and technological advances propelled these explorers across the sea. It was during this time that their version of the world expanded. No longer were the coastal European countries the borders of the world. Instead new territories and the "the new world" were rediscovered, which included the exploration of the Americas, parts of the pacific region and the Caribbean region. One of the more compelling factors involved in European invasion was the quest for gold, precious stones and metals and other forms of mineral wealth. In the Caribbean region in particular this was whilst funding was pumped into the extraction of mineral wealth of other territories, eg) Mexico. It was during this era that territories in south East Asia were explored as well. Whilst these countries, such as India and China, were not as rich in mineral wealth, they introduced tea and various other spices to Europe. Suddenly the drinking of tea became very fashionable across Europe. People could not get enough of it. However, tea went hand in hand with some sort of sweetener. Thus a demand for sugar, in very large quantities, was created on the European markets. [Europe needed large, cheap quantities of sugar and the Caribbean provided this solution. The Caribbean had rich, fertile soils and a climate totally conducive to the cultivation of sugar. The plantation system was established. Some European merchants established large plantation in the Caribbean totally devoted to large scale sugar production. With the production of sugar, the large plantations were vital to the maximization of profits. ] The labour force needed firstly was comprised of the indigenous people of the regions but they were unaccustomed to the hard work and brutality of enslavement and they soon died out. Africa was seen as the ideal labour force as labourers were very cheap and plentiful. Also, the African slaves operated in the harsh Caribbean climates, were said to be industrious and performed quite well when presented with hard labour. The labour attempt was successful, the Caribbean was the ideal environment for the growth of sugar; this was the perfect recipe to guarantee the success of the sugar production venture. The sugar industry took off, with sugar fetching a high price on the European markets because it was in great demand. The success of this plantation system attracted European settlement in the Caribbean, which altered the social demographics of the region, thereby creating the plantation model. The Plantation Society This was a rigidly stratified hierarchal pyramid. The Planter was the master and the owner of the plantation. He lived in the great house and his life was usually riddled with luxury and splendour. He was at the top of the social pyramid. The Overseers and the skilled white staff came next. They managed the technical and financial operations of the plantation. In the event of owner absenteeism, this social group would occupy the top of the pyramid. After this group came the Poor Whites. These were poor white workers who were usually based in agriculture. Most of them work "Barbadoed" or sent to the Caribbean to toil on the plantations as punishment for a crime that they had committed. It is interesting to note that most of these poor whites were considerably poorer and less educated than the Free Coloureds but they were considered to have a higher social standing because they were white. There existed a distinct social barrier between the whites and the other members of society and this barrier could not be crossed. In the social pyramid, after the poor whites came the free coloured or mulattoes. At that time, if a person had even one drop of negro blood in them, they were considered black or coloured. Some of the members of this group were the offspring of slaves and the planters. Some of the planters manumitted or freed their coloured children, educated them and brought them comfortably. The coloured elite was rich, well connected and well-educated but they were not afforded social mobility because of their ethnicity. Additionally this group comprised ex-slaves who purchased their freedom and worked hard to gain social mobility. After this group came the domestic slaves. These worked in the great house and possessed more technical skills than the field slaves. They had direct access to white society, books and limited education. As a result, this group had some opportunities for social mobility. The factory slaves or artisan slaves performed semi-skilled jobs inside the factory. At the very bottom of the social pyramid were the field slaves. These were directly responsible for the cultivation of the sugar crop and comprised the bulk of the plantation society as a whole. [The plantation society was very rigidly divided and allowed for little social mobility.] **How has the impression of beauty in the Caribbean evolved in direct response to hybridization?** The plantation system was so much more than just a large farm. It was a unique organization of agrarian product labour cultivation and extreme control. The plantation mode had its own economic motivations which in turn led to the strict social hierarchy. The plantation model recognized skin colour as a sign of states. The plantocracy was a very small and elite class that was ruled and influenced by the white planters. This class was at the top of the social pyramid, social mobility was extremely limited in the plantation hierarchy. **Plantation Society** The purpose of the plantation system in the colonies 15-17^th^ century was to: 1. Amass large quantities of tropical products (eg sugar, coffee, tobacco, cocoa), at a [cheap rate.] (economic) 2. Satisfy demand on European markets for these tropical products. (economic) 3. Consolidation of empire (imperialism). (political) 4. Encourage settlements in the colonies making the empire stronger. (social) 5. Facilitate the exploration of the Americas. (political) 6. Establish a social hierarchy in the colonies that will ensure European supremacy. (social) 7. Economic aggrandizement towards funding the industrial revolution in Britain. (Eric Williams) **Operations** 1. Sugar was a large-scale and intensive monoculture/cultivation and needed a large labour supply -- slaves. Britain Sugar, coffee, tobacco, cocoa West Indies Africa Slaves 2. The Dutch were in control in acquiring slaves from West Africa. This was done through raids, kidnapping, trade with middle men involved in the Trans-Sahara slave trade of tribal leaders and bribery. The British in particular purchased shiploads of slaves as labour supplies for the colonies. 3. The African slaves were said to be strong, hard-working, relatively peaceful and suited to Caribbean climates. In short, slavery ensured the success of British West Indian sugar. 4. The plantations were divided into a social hierarchy with limited social mobility based on wealth and race. Because the slaves outnumbered the whites approximately 10 to 1, a system had to be maintained to keep the lower classes in check and prevent future rebellion. 5. Approximately 27,000,000 slaves came into the region between 1600 and 1807 (abolition of the slave trade) still slave populations did not naturally grow because: i. High infertility rates. ii. High rates of suicide and infanticide. iii. Starvation iv. Rigors of the plantation system v. Unequal male to female ratio among the slaves vi. Low life expectancy 6. British slave emancipation -- August 1^st^ 1834. 7. Following that there was a period of apprenticeship that lasted until 1838. 1. Decline in the profitability of British West Indian sugar due to competition from Spanish sugar, beet sugar (Europe) and gar from the North American colonies especially Virginia. 2. The cost of maintaining a slave from birth to death was much more than paying a free labourer. 3. Decline in demand for sugar. 4. Protectionist tariffs enjoyed by British planters were being removed to support free market capitalism. 5. The argument that slavery was non-racist but was an economic system designed to cheaply extract surplus labour. 6. Soil fertility rates in British West Indies declined due to plantation monoculture link to not only to a reduced output of sugar but a decline in the quality of the sugar produce. (Eric Williams Capitalism and Slavery Decline thesis) **Humanitarian** 1. The growing influence and popularity of humanitarian groups not only in the British Parliament but in the Court of Public Opinion, eg) Quakers, Claphamsect, William Willberforce, Granville Sharpe, Thomas Clarkson etc. 2. The humanitarian argument was becoming fashionable as were other literary pursuits. 3. Various religious and philosophical were cited to justify that slavery was wrong and should be ended with immediate effect. NB. These arguments existed from the 1750s but had little real influence on anti-slavery sentiment in parliament until the economic deficiencies of sugar became apparent. 4. The French Revolution of 1789 served as a reminder to all of Europe that the social stratification that existed under feudal was fragile and that those at the top of society could be ousted or removed at anytime by revolution. The rebellion from the masses of France based on the watchwords of liberty, equality and fraternity lead to the declaration of the rights of man which pronounced all French citizens as equal in the eyes of the law and lead to French slaver emancipation in 1804. **Social** 1. Revolt in the colonies increased up until the 1800s. Between 1650 and 1834 there were 30 major slave revolts in the colonies. The most famous of which were Barbados in 1816, Demerara Guyana in 1823, Jamaica Morant's Bay 1831 (the Christmas rebellion) (all rebellions were unsuccessful), and the Hatian Revolution 1791 which was successful. 2. Revolt in the colonies put fear in the hearts of the white planters as they realize their position was precarious especially since in most colonies slaves outnumbered whites 10 to 1. **Methods Employed To Stir Up Public Opinions** 1. Use of slogans. 2. Sermons. 3. Literary works. 4. Paintings (Wedgewood's cameo) 5. Petitions 6. Political Debates **Decline in Plantation Profitability\ **Eric Williams the Decline Thesis **Exports** 1815 1833 ------------- --------------------- --------------------- Sugar 3,381,790 (tonnes) 3,351,869 (tonnes) Rum 6,741,668 (gallon) 5,091,821 (gallons) Cotton 12,849,411 (pounds) 1,539,984 (pounds) Coffee 33,186,790 (pounds) 28,517,813 (pounds) **Year** **Exports** **Value of Exported Goods** ---------- ------------- ----------------------------- 1814 £ 9,022,309 £ 6,282,226 1830 £ 8,599,100 £ 3,749,799 **Clauses of the Act of Emancipation 1834** 1. Freedom from 1^st^ August, 1834. 2. All slaves over the age of 6 were to be apprenticed -- field slaves = 6 years; domestic slaves = 4 years\ N.B. Apprenticeship was a transition period between slavery and freedom designed to appease the planters who were oppose to abolition. The planters argued that the slaves were ready for freedom it would be irresponsible if given money and were uncivilized. Apprenticeship would teach the slaves how to function in respectable society. Apprenticeship ended for all slaves in 1838. 3. Ex-slaves were supposed to work 40 ½ hours per week for their former owner and were paid fixed wages, usually 15cents per day. In reality ex-slaves were often given provision grounds in the larger colonies instead of a salary. Also goods accessible to the ex-slaves and rent were often highly overpriced so their salary did not go very far. 4. Stipendiary magistrates were appointed to oversee emancipation and to ensure that slaves and ex-slaves were not abused. They were often corrupt and there were only 7 magistrates assigned to the British West Indies. 5. Repatriation (compensation) was awarded to the planters who divided £ 15,000,000 among approximately 250 plantations to compensate planters for loss of income brought about by emancipation. **Indentureship** After 1838 various attempts at free contracted labour were pursued to compensate the perceived labour shortages on British West Indian plantations. Labour shortages did not occur in the smaller territories and happened to an extent in the larger ones because of land availability. Still alternative forms of labour were experimented with to increase the number of workers in the colonies and to keep the price of labour down. The planters also felt that they would be able to better control a foreign labour source and keep them in conditions similar to slavery without legal implications. The main groups experimented with were: 1. Syrians 2. Lebanese 3. Free white contracted labour (Britain) 4. Chinese 5. Indians The first trip of Indian immigrants came in 1845 to Guyana. The first trip coming to Trinidad in 1847. The system was ended in 1917. Indians were initially required to fulfill three (3) contracts but this was revised to 5 year contracts in 1862. **Reasons for Indian Immigration** 1. Economic -- drought, poor harvest, famine, overpopulation, unemployment, over-congestion in urban areas. 2. Political pressures -- the mutiny of 1857 was brutally crushed by the British Raj which forced some of the rebels to come to the West Indies to escape persecution. 3. Social Pressures -- Caste System (rigid) mass literacy narrowing employment opportunities [some] female indentures came to escape their husbands and personal problems, immigration encouraged some criminals but especially the poverty stricken who came to escape starvation. 4. Higher wages - workers could earn 1-3 pence per day; in West Indies in the 1850s they could earn as much as one shilling per task. 5. Unemployment in India -- work were usually seasonal since cottage industries and subsistence agricultural practices were popular. 6. Destruction of India's domestic economy -- eg) textile industry in Britain provided competition, many small weavers out of business. Percentages of Immigrants in Relation to the Caste System 13.6% - higher castes 30.1% - agricultural castes 8.7% - artisan castes 31.1% - menial castes 16.5% - rest came from other religious outside the caste system **How They Were Obtained** 1. Proportion of women to men were legally fixed, 25-40 women for every 100 men. 2. Immigrants came from main ports in Madras (Chennai) and Calcutta (Kolkata) 3. Immigrants came from densely populated areas with high unemployment such as Bihar, Bengal (Bangladesh), The United Provinces, Oudh, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab. 4. It was easier for British West Indian planters to recruit labour from India was a British colony with no foreign government or trade hassles to deal with. Recruitment lasted 6-8 weeks with shipload with agents acting on behalf of the colonial planters. 5. Potential immigrants were persuaded to migrate by enticing them with stories of the colonies, promises of land and high wages and even kidnapping. 6. Voyages lasted 10-18 weeks, disease was rampant, ships were overcrowded, mortality rates were high (17%) **Terms of the Indentureship Contract** 1. They worked for 9 hours a day/6days a week. 2. Indians were not allowed to leave the employers estate. 3. Contracts lasted for 3 years at first, then extended to 5 years. 4. Immigrants were at first offered return passage to India but this was soon revoked. Land was supposed to be given to the Indians after the residents of the colonies for 10 years but this did not happen. 5. Stipendiary magistrates were appointed to oversee the system (ineffective). **Living and Working Conditions on the Estates** 1. Similar to slavery -- same plantation conditions, barracks, same overseers. 2. Longer work hours than in contract. 3. Lower wages. 4. Unjustified wage deductions. 5. Abuse of vagrancy laws and the pass clause. 6. Inefficient medical facilities and services. 7. Poor quality of housing and water. 8. Judicial biases. **Impact of the East Indians** 1. Increased agricultural export. 2. Brought new crops and varieties which lead to the diversification of the economy. 3. Reduction in wages due to the new labour source. 4. Increased market for ground provisions. 5. New employment opportunities for ex-slaves -\> better standard of living. 6. More plural society, cultural hybridization. 7. Increased population. 8. Indians brought their culture, religion, skills (medicine, pottery making, architecture). **End of Indentureship 1917** 1. Indian nationalists (Gandhi) felt that indentureship was degrading and contrary to the goal of Indian Independence. 2. Ex-slaves argued that indentureship created employment among the black community. 3. The Humanitarian argument -- Indentureship was slavery by another name **Indentureship vs Slavery** 1. Existing plantation structures meant that labour, overseers and punishments were very similar. 2. The offspring of a slave would be a slave whereas the offspring of indentured workers were not indentured. 3. Slavery was mandatory but indentureship was voluntary. 4. Judicial biases existed in both. 5. Slaves were not paid whereas indentured workers had wages. 6. Slave culture was largely oppressed while the culture of indentured were only oppressed to an extent. 7. Extraction of labour was similar but indentureship still had a voluntary aspect. 8. Slaves were not allowed to own land but indentured owned plots of land. 9. Standard of living were similar. 10. Indentureship was under contract though deliberately misrepresented; language barrier, illiteracy, contract signed in the colonies. 11. S -- Stipendiary magistrates existed with both slavery (after 1807) and indentureship (from the start) -- inefficient. 12. Indians were theoretically free but not reality because they were denied an education, not given freedom to practice their religions. 13. Physical punishment existed with the indentured but was no way as bad as during slavery. **[Similarities between Indentureship and Slavery]** 1. Indentureship Contracts 2. Language Barriers 3. Kidnapping 4. Legislation 5. Middle Passage or Kala Pani 6. Conditions on the Plantation **[Differences between Indentureship and Slavery]** 1. Contract 2. Treatment of indentured labourers 3. Timeframe 4. Punishment 5. Wages 6. Religion and Culture \*Ameliorate- To make better or to improve conditions. **[Colonial Oppression]** **Resistance to Oppression Timeline** **[Resistance to Colonial Oppression]** **Resistance to Colonial Oppression** 1. Legal/ Political- Petitioning the colony and the crown for better land and working conditions (Morant Bay 1865); petitioning for permission for Hosay procession (Trinidad 1884); rise in trade union movement (larger territories 1930s). 2. Economic- Development of free village/ peasantry (post Emancipation); Production of agriculture to reduce the mono crop dependency; saving and investment (all people); opening of small business and shops. 3. Psychological/ Ideological- Pan Africanism, Negritude and Black Intelligentsia 4. Social- Trade union movement (most territories); appeal to the Moyne Commission. 5. Cultural- Hosay Massacre, Siewdass Sadhu (Temple in the Sea) 6. Political/ Military- Hosay Riots, Morant Bay Rebellion, Trade Union Movement and Labour unrest 7. Desertion -- Running away from one plantation to another to another where they expected better treatment; running to the mountain to independent settlements (maroonage, free peasantry; leaving the island completely (Indians, Venezuelans) **[African/Indian]** **[Violent Resistance]** 1. Suicide/ Infanticide 2. Revolt- uprising from below; in Jamaica there we 30 documented slave revolts between 1650 and 1834. 3. Maroonage (derived from Cimarron which means people from the mountain top); - more in larger territories; these people were instrumental in stimulating the domestic economy through subsistent agriculture; often helped in revolts. 4. Killing plantation whites, destruction of fields and equipment and arson **Non-Violent Resistance** 1. Desertion -- running away from plantations 2. Malingering in the fields -- going slowly 3. Feigning illness 4. Destruction of plantation equipment 5. Abortion **Haitian Revolution** 1. St. Domingue (Haiti) was considered the pearl of the Antilles because it was the largest sugar producing territory in the western hemisphere. In the 1790s Haiti had approximately 480,000 slaves with the ratio of slaves to whites approximately 15:1. The Haitian Revolution served as inspiration for future rebellion in the West Indies. 2. The Haitian Revolution erupted because: i\) Influence of the French Revolution ii) Defying the Metropolitan rule iii\) Declaration of the rights of man- freed slaves in France but not Haiti iv\) Large free coloured class- rich, well educated, spread ideas of the revolution v\) Strong leadership: Toussaint L'Ouverture, Henri Christophe, Jean- Jacques Dessalines. **Barbados Rebellion (1816)** **Causes** 1. The slaves mistook the abolition of British Slave Trade (1807) for Emancipation; slave felt that planters were withholding freedom. 2. Free coloureds brought news of anti-slavery debates. 3. Harsh treatment; desire for freedom and revenge. 4. Literate slaves eg. Nanny Grig had access to local and British newspapers. 5. Strong leadership eg. Bussa who was an African born slave **Course of the Rebellion** 1. Revolt took the plantocracy by surprise cause they were no rebellions in the last 100 years; rebellion spread across the island within a few hours- 1/3 of the island; approximately 70 plantations 2. Slaves in Barbados had some freedom (Sunday Market) which help them to organise a revolt; carefully executed by senior slaves 3. When British soldiers crushed the revolt ¼ of sugar cane crop was destroyed; approximately 1000 rebels were killed; 214 rebels were executed and 123 were sold as slaves to other islands. **Demerara Uprising (1823)** **Causes:** 1. Slaves felt planters were withholding freedom. 2. Strong leadership (Jack Gladstone, Joseph Packwood, Manuel) 3. Heavily armed- seized guns from the plantation; planned to lock up whites. 4. Church was used as an excuse to organise revolts 5. Discontentment among Christian slaves over new restrictions on their religious practices; planters fear slave congregation and slave literacy. **Course:** 1. Rebellion was betrayed by Packwood; soldiers were dispatched who asked the slaves to disarm themselves and go home, they refused. Martial Law was declared 2. Slaves seized weapons and locked up white planters in East Demerara with very little violence. Out of Approximately 74,000 less than 13,000 took part, of 350 estates, only 37 were involved 3. Christian missionary, Rev. John Smith convinced the slaves to be non-violent and informed the governor about the revolt. Smith was arrested and charged for inciting rebellion and sentenced to hang, he died of pneumonia while awaiting sentencing. 4. Uprising collapsed quickly because even though the slaves were heavily armed, they were poorly organised **Jamaica 1831 (Morant Bay Rebellion, Christmas Rebellion, Snap trap rebellion)** **Causes:** 1. A lot of rebellions took place in Jamaica- 1655-1830, by the 1820s more than 2500 slaves were escaping plantations each year. 2. Large maroon population 3. Harsh treatment 4. Strong leadership- Samuel Sharpe **Course of the rebellion:** 1. Slaves refuse to work. Strike was meant to peaceful to force the owners to [pay] the slaves to cut the cane before it spoiled. 2. Plantations were burned down causing over £1 million in damages. More than 200 plantations in North Jamaica were attacked as approximately 20,000 slaves rebelled. 3. Revolt lead by Sam Sharpe lasted for ten days and British troops restored order. Approximately 200 slaves died and 14 white planters died **Muharram Massacre / Hosay Massacre / Jahaji Massacre (30^TH^ Oct. 1884)** **Causes:** 1. Industrial unrest on the plantations. 2. Deepening depression in the sugar industry. 3. Frequent strikes 4. 1883- there was restrictions on the use of torches; processions of Indian and African people were prohibited from entering towns. **Course of the Rebellion:** 1. Sookoo, an indentured labourer led 31 others to petition the law banning Hosay processions from entering San Fernando, this was rejected. They agreed to defy the law as an act of civil disobedience. 2. October 30^th^ 1884 -- the procession tried to make it way in San Fernando via the Mon Repos junction 74 policemen, 20 soldiers and 21 British Marines were stationed outside the 3 roads leading to San Fernando. 3. The Riot Act was read amid the drumming, chanting and singing. Few Indians heard and understood it because it was read in English. Shots were fired into the crowd, 120 were wounded and 22 were killed (Kelvin Singh). **Free Village Movement** 1. This was made up mostly of settlement of West Indian peasantry- ex-slaves after who 1838 started small farms on the peripheries (outskirts) of plantation areas where ever they could find land 2. The free village movement happen because: i. Availability of land- more common in larger territories with lots of unused land ii. Attitude of the free men to plantation labour- in Jamaica where anti-plantation sentiments were the strongest, the free village movement was the strongest iii. Attitude of the planters- the planters opposed the freemen acquisition of land by attempting to stop the sale of and squatting on crown lands eg Barbados iv. Attitude of the colonial government- Some governors encouraged the movement while other legislated against the growth of cooperative estates. **Analysis** 1. The end of slavery did not mark end of colonial oppression as focus was on maintaining absolute control with a rigid social structure and a limited political and economic administration. 2. The peasantry were the innovators of economic life among the ex-slaves as they produced great quantities of subsistence food and livestock; they introduced new crops, promoted old crop and cash crops eg tobacco, leading to agricultural diversification. 3. Peasant development had great social significance because they converted plantation territories in modern vibrant societies by helping to build local self-generating communities. 4. Peasants gained an increased income and self-sufficiency because of the promotion domestic trade and increase in market share. 5. Cultural pluralism (diversity)- Family life was improved and there was interracial mixing in society as different races were forced to interact with each other. **Morant Bay Rebellion** **(11^th^ October 1865)** **Causes** 1. Limited adult franchise -- On paper ex-slaves were allowed to vote but property and educational qualifications denied them this. Out of 436,000 less than 2000 were allowed to vote. Black Jamaicans outnumbered White Jamaicans 32:1. 2. A 2 year drought before 1865 escalated poverty. 3. High tax/ Reduction in wages. 4. Rumors circulating that planters intended to restore slavery 5. Scarcity of land **Course** 1. Protesters marched into Morant Bay where riot escalated killing 18 people; troops were dispatched and 439 ex-slaves were killed directly by soldiers while 354 were later arrested and executed. More than 600 men and women were flogged and given long prison sentences 2. The rebellion sparked great debate over the governor's handling of the situation the Jamaican assembly was disbanded and the crown colony system was adopted, where full autonomy was given to the British Monarchy. The right was now nullified for everyone including planters. **Labour Movement 1930's** **Causes** 1. Economic except for oil in Trinidad and Bauxite in Guyana the West Indian economies were largely dependent on agriculture which made them highly vulnerable to reduced demand and economic downturn. The sugar industry fell sharply as supply exceeded demand; overproduction; global economic depression. 2. Decrease in wages- large number of person in the labour force; unemployment and underemployment. 3. Social conditions deteriorated- Sharply increasing population; inadequate welfare system; cost of living increased. 4. Peasant grievances with plantation owners-peasants occupied the least fertile land; bullied by land owners. Problems with land tenure; poor technology; lack of finance and marketing assistance; poor transport to take goods to market. 5. Rapid growth of working class consciousness- formation of labour organisation from the 1920s especially Guyana and Jamaica 6. General increase inn nationalist and pro-independence sentiments in the 1930s- labour organisation grew into political organisations and wider social movements as they campaigned for better wages and working conditions, transformations of the political system and political independence for the colonies. **Course and Consequences** 1. Unrest started in Belize, Trinidad, Guyana and Jamaica. Worker lead by their trade unions started well patronized forms of unrest and strikes even though they faced heavy resistance from the police and military the unrest increased in frequency throughout these islands because of industrialization and urbanization. 2. Labour unrest increased the self-confidence of workers and showed them that they had tremendous influence with united effort. 3. The labour unrest forced the Royal Commission and by extension the British Government to realize that trade union legislation (on par with existing British Legislation) had to be introduced in all colonies. Trade Unions were made legal in colonies where they previously weren't and peaceful picketing was made lawful. Trade Unions were given immunity from actions for breach of contract because of strikes. 4. Monyne Commission was created to examine social commission within the territories (housing, healthcare, agriculture, prisons etc.) 5. The commission recommended reform in welfare and the colonial structure, especially the system of land tenure some of its recommendations were implemented in the colonial Development and Welfare Act 1940, where £ 5 million was allocated every year for welfare and development in the colonies **Ideological Resistance** In response to the restrictive ideology of colonial oppression, West Indian writers and intellectuals began to critique these systems of racism, social injustice, underdevelopment and colonialism. The 3 main intellectual traditions were: 1. Pan Africanism- Conceived by people of African descent, mainly in Africa, the Caribbean and the USA; the movement seeks to unite Africa and promote a feeling of oneness among persons of the African diaspora to sensitize people of the glorious achievement of the African civilization and to regenerate pride in persons humiliated by slavery and bonded labour. 2. Negritude- The assertion of the value and dignity of African people through a literary medium. These writing were heavily influenced by slavery, imperialism and colonialism. 3. Black Intelligentsia- The intellectual classes emerging in the 1920s- 1930s were of young African men especially who were well educated and made significant contributions in literary and anthropological fields. The resistance movements evolved in response in changes to colonial oppression. While in many cases they resulted in improvements they did not in others. **[MOVEMENT TOWARDS INDEPENDENCE]** 1. The rise of trade unionism and political party formation assisted in movement towards independence, coupled with the advent and more importantly collapse of the West Indian Federation (1958). These facilitated decolonization. The Federation failed for the following reasons: i. Disagreements in the funding and voting criteria per territory ii. Inter personality conflicts among territorial leaders such as Grantly Adams (Barbados, Head of Federation), Eric Williams (Trinidad), Norman Manley (Jamaica). 2. It must be understood that the British Government was [willing] to recognise sovereignty in the Caribbean although originally via a region political entity (Federation). **[Atlantic Charter of Human Rights]** 1. "We recognise the rights of [native sovereignty] across the globe to practice sovereign government status" 2. After World War 2 political pressure was placed on Britain and France to decolonize. Britain had to implement the Federation so when it failed independence had to be granted. **[Political Enfranchisement]** 1. Adult suffrage initiated an overall process of native people's right to autonomy in political affairs. It refers to opportunities for natives to acquire political office (government) through limited and later full adult suffrage 1. The ability of a government to dictate economic process and systems of production it refers to the capabilities of native people to determine systems of productions or capitalist activities. 2. Economic Enfranchisement refers to the capabilities of a native people to determine their systems of production or capitalist activities. Therefore economic enfranchisement depended on political enfranchisement. Since the independence of several Caricom territories native governments have implemented taxations schemes, international training and [the implementation of local entrepreneurship.] This gave the business community greater legitimacy and status. Independence and enfranchisement gave the opportunity to practice economic entrepreneurship because of the legitimacy lent to the conversion of foreign owned companies to locally owned. **Entrepreneurial Activities** 1. Entrepreneurship is risk taking to generate profit; conducting a business activity financial risk and bearing all responsibility for these risks from 1834 onwards entrepreneurial activity blossomed in the Caribbean as social groups and class attained freedom of movement and economic activity. With early subsistence farming and later expansions of the household income through the sale of goods and services, markets and by consequence demand grew opening up even more opportunities for business 2. Agricultural diversification and the introduction of migrant groups lead to the opening of small shops and haberdasheries as people started to make more money there was a need for investment opportunities which took the form of sou-sou, box- hand, jewellery, land, livestock, saving societies and banks (migrant people didn't use banks much). 3. Entrepreneurship thrives when a legal framework is created for it by political enfranchisement, giving it legitimacy. To a large extent the government is not a purely political process but is linked to the demands of the people especially with public property, the pursuit of entrepreneurial activity, pursuit of income. MIGRATORY MOVEMENTS OUT OF THE CARIBBEAN FROM 1838 TO PRESENT -- DIASPORIC MOVEMENTS