Biopsychology Session 2 Lecture Notes PDF

Biopsychology Session 2 Lecture 5-7 1  Tentamentrainingen blok 2b Practical information Session 1 4th of May 11-13 Lecture 1 - 4 Session 2 Lecture 5-7...

Biopsychology Session 2 Lecture 5-7 1  Tentamentrainingen blok 2b Practical information Session 1 4th of May 11-13 Lecture 1 - 4 Session 2 Lecture 5-7 5th of May 11-13 Partial Exam 1 - 8th of May 18:30-20:30 Session 3 Lecture 8 - 11 10th of June 11-13 Session 4 Lecture 12-14 11th of June 11-13 Partial Exam 2 - 12th of June 11:45-13:45 2  Today 5: Vision Break ○ steps: from light to image ○ 3 theories on colour vision 7: movement ○ Anatomy of vision ○ muscles ○ Lateral inhibition ○ primary motor cortex ○ Cells ○ spinal cord ○ Development ○ cerebellum ○ Visual hierarchy ○ basal ganglia ○ movement disorders 6: Mechanical and chemical senses ○ Auditory system Questions ○ Vestibular system ○ Somatosensation ○ Touch ○ Pain ○ Taste ○ Olfaction 3  Perception Law of specific nerve energies Today: The way brain interprets different inputs in vision the correct category e.g. optic nerve as visual input hearing pain Synesthesia - one sense evokes another taste smell movement Inleiding Staats- en Bestuursrecht Erasmus Universiteit Rotterdam 2023/2024 © 4 2023/2024 ©  Chapter 5 - Vision From light to image Blind spot 1. Light enters through pupil, a hole in the iris 2. Light is focus by the lens (adjustable) and cornea 3. Projected on the retina 4. photoreceptors recognize different wavelengths 5. activates bipolar cells 6. activates ganglion cells 7. Amacrine cells receive information from bipolar cells and send info to bipolar, amacrine and ganglion cells to refine the image 8. Horizontal cells send inhibitory signals to bipolar cells Fovea Light travels through invisible layers of ganglion and bipolar cells to firstInleiding activateStaats- en Bestuursrecht Erasmus Universiteit Rotterdam 2023/2024 © the photoreceptors at the back of the retina. 5 2023/2024 © Why is the fovea specialized in details? because each photoreceptor is connected to one bipolar cell which is connected to a single midget ganglion cell Common questions What is the blind spot and why do I not notice it? This is where the optic nerve leaves the retina. This is compensated for with the other eye. Is vision contralateral like how your left hand is connected to your right hemisphere? Yes and no, not only is the image flipped left to right but also upside down. 6  Photoreceptors 2 types - Rods over the entire retina - Cones only in the fovea both release of photopigments when struck by light, which modifies receptor sensitivity to different wavelengths Colour vision deficiency - impairment to see colours (full colour blindness is rare) - develops due to gene that fails to develop a certain type of cone correctly Inleiding Staats- en Bestuursrecht Erasmus Universiteit Rotterdam 2023/2024 © 7 2023/2024 © 3 different theories on colour vision Trichromatic theory Opponent-process theory Retinex theory 3 types of cones with a short, colour perceived in terms of ability to see colour medium and long wavelength opposites despite changes in colour is determined by response of photoreceptors is increased with pairs: lighting comparing the response from ○ blue-yellow automatically compare the 3 cones ○ red-green visual input with ○ black-white information we have previously encountered 8  Anatomy of visual processing Optic nerve pathway 1. Optic nerve leaves the eye a. Left and right visual field 2. optic nerve crosses in optic chiasm a. Left visual field to right hemisphere 3. travel to lateral geniculate nucleus (part of thalamus) 4. Lateral geniculate nucleus sends info to the visual cortex Inleiding Staats- en Bestuursrecht Erasmus Universiteit Rotterdam 2023/2024 © 9 2023/2024 © 10  Lateral inhibition Activity in neighbouring neurons to heighten contrast allows for optimal object background differentiation 1. Light strikes photoreceptors, activating them 2. Bipolar and horizontal cells are activated 3. Bipolar cells are activated by photoreceptors & slightly inhibited by all neighbouring horizontal cells a. Bipolar cell in the middle of illuminated area receives inhibitory signal of many surrounding horizontal cells b. Bipolar cells on the border only receives input of its own horizontal cell, receiving only a slight inhibitory signal Inleiding Staats- en Bestuursrecht Erasmus Universiteit Rotterdam 2023/2024 © 11 2023/2024 ©  Cells Increase in receptive field (area of visual space) higher up visual hierarchy Cell Receptive field function Photoreceptor small activate bipolar and horizontal cells Bipolar cells all photoreceptors connected to it activate ganglion cells Ganglion cells (3 types) all bipolar cells connected to it, doughnut shaped receptive field 1. Parvocellular neurons small detecting details and colour (near fovea) 2. Magnocellular neurons large respond to movement and large patterns (evenly distributed throughout retina) Inleiding Staats- en Bestuursrecht Erasmus Universiteit Rotterdam 2023/2024 © 3. Koniocellular neurons small (similar to Parvocellular) some colour sensitivity (found throughout retina) 12 2023/2024 ©  Types of cells Cells with similar properties group together in columns e.g. neurons in primary visual cortex often feature detectors Cell receptive field respond to Simple cells fixed excitatory and inhibitory zones horizontal or vertical orientations Complex cells large specific pattern of light in a particular orientation end-stopped (hypercomplex) cells strong inhibitory area anywhere in receptive field Inleiding Staats- en Bestuursrecht Erasmus Universiteit Rotterdam 2023/2024 © 13 2023/2024 ©  Development of visual cortex Visual system develops before birth, however still requires experience to develop synchronizing activity of neighbouring receptors to form connections with cells visual-experience for fine-tuning ○ essential to have visual input during sensitive period Retinal disparity (discrepancy between left and right eye) ○ necessary for stereoscopic depth perception Incorrect development Strabismus ('lazy eye' condition) due to incorrect depth vision Astigmatism ○ common in infants but often outgrow it Inleiding Staats- en Bestuursrecht Erasmus Universiteit Rotterdam 2023/2024 © 14 2023/2024 ©  Ventral and Dorsal pathway Ventral Stream (what pathway) Dorsal Stream (how pathway) Recognize objects Guides movement with visual input Damage can cause visual agnosia (inability to recognize objects) Inleiding Staats- en Bestuursrecht Erasmus Universiteit Rotterdam 2023/2024 © 15 2023/2024 ©  Visual hierarchy Receptive fields become larger and more specialized V1 (Primary visual cortex) basic features (such as lines and edges) V2 (Secondary visual cortex) patterns V3 colour V4 recognition V5 (Middle temporal cortex) motion (including differences in self-generated and external) inability in this area is motion blindness Inleiding Staats- en Bestuursrecht Erasmus Universiteit Rotterdam 2023/2024 © 16 2023/2024 ©  Object recognition Most brain areas do not respond more to one object than another. Exceptions: Parahippocampal cortex responds more to pictures of places Fusiform gyrus part of the inferior temporal cortex responds more to faces damage in this area can cause prosopagnosia Inleiding Staats- en Bestuursrecht Erasmus Universiteit Rotterdam 2023/2024 © 17 2023/2024 ©  1. D 2. A Practice Questions 3. Before birth, but experiences Chapter 5 (during sensitive period) are crucial for normal 1. What cell sends inhibitory signals? development a. Photoreceptor 4. A b. Bipolar cell 5. Dorsal, parietal c. Ganglion cell d. Horizontal cell 2. What is the main source of colour vision? a. Cones in the fovea b. Cones in the retina c. Rods in the fovea d. Rods in the retina 3. When is the visual system developed? Terminology only in the exam bundle: 4. What colour theory can explain an after image? - blindsight a. Opponent process theory - need-to-know-basis b. Trichromatic theory c. Retinex theory d. Astigmatism theory 5. When trying to infer how you can move around you use the ____ stream that sends information to the ____ lobe 18  Chapter 6 - Mechanical and Chemical senses Auditory system Sound waves differ in amplitude (higher = louder) frequency (higher = higher pitch) timbre (complexity) differences can create prosody (emotional tone) 1. Sound enters at the pinna 2. travel through auditory canal 3. transmit vibration over stirrup, anvil and hammer (Tympanic 4. vibration of oval window creates motion in liquid membrane) in cochlea 5. activation of hair cells (auditory receptors) Inleiding Staats- en Bestuursrecht Erasmus Universiteit Rotterdam 2023/2024 © 19 2023/2024 ©  apex Theories of Pitch perception Place theory certain hair cells respond to certain frequencies limited: no individual area of basilar membrane can vibrate on its own Frequency theory entire basilar membrane vibrates equal to the sound received (action potential = HZ) refractory period limited: _____________________ (but true for low frequencies) Volley principle Inleiding several neuralStaats- en Bestuursrecht populations Erasmus Universiteit fire simultaneously but outRotterdam of phase 2023/2024 with each©other 20 2023/2024 ©  Auditory cortex 2 pathways of auditory processing Visual processing Pathway to process identity anterior temporal cortex _________ Ventral stream Pathway to process location posterior temporal cortex _________ Dorsal stream Primary auditory cortex (A1) complex sounds A2 nature sounds superior temporal cortex motion (motion deaf from damage here) Inleiding Staats- en Bestuursrecht Erasmus Universiteit Rotterdam 2023/2024 © 21 2023/2024 ©  Sound localisation Difference in time of arrival Difference in intensity ○ shadow of the head phase difference between the ears ○ 360 degrees Inleiding Staats- en Bestuursrecht Erasmus Universiteit Rotterdam 2023/2024 © 22 2023/2024 ©  Hearing loss due to environment Deafness Tinnitus ringing of the ear after Conductive deafness exposure (similar to phantom limb by middle ear unable to send soundwaves to cochlea infections or tumorous bone growth damaging cochlea) usually temporary surgery or implants to amplify sound Hearing loss due to ageing Nerve deafness Natural deterioration inner ear for example the damage to cochlea, hair cells or auditory nerve language and inherited or due to exposure attention areas Inleiding Staats- en Bestuursrecht Erasmus Universiteit Rotterdam 2023/2024 © 23 2023/2024 ©  Vestibular system Balance and distinguish between self and external movement Semicircular canals filled with fluid and lined with hair cells Inleiding Staats- en Bestuursrecht Erasmus Universiteit Rotterdam 2023/2024 © 24 2023/2024 ©  Somatosensation experience of touch, pressure, pain, itch, temperature and movement Somatosensory receptors Pacinian corpuscles detect vibration and sudden displacement on skin Merkel's disks light touch Meissner's corpuscle skin movement and object handling detection Ruffini ending skin stretching, movement, and finger position Inleiding Staats- en Bestuursrecht Erasmus Universiteit Rotterdam 2023/2024 © 25 2023/2024 ©  Awareness of touch Information in the CNS info from the head to the brain via cranial nerves touch info from periphery to brain via spinal nerves (dermatome) Pain Same pathway as touch (and emotional pain) ○ Starts from bare nerve endings in the skin ○ touch crosses at the medulla ○ pain crosses at the spinal cord Dull pain is slow due to unmyelinated axons Sharp pain over thicker myelinated axons ○ release substance P (neuropeptide) Inleiding Staats- en Bestuursrecht Erasmus Universiteit Rotterdam 2023/2024 © 26 2023/2024 ©  Pain relief Some opiates decrease Drugs pain but increase itch, suggesting that itch is not a type of pain Opioid mechanism: opiates & endorphins bind to ○ receptors in spinal cord ○ periaqueductal gray area of the midbrain Morphine only effective for dull pain as it only blocks ______________ thin / unmeylinaeted axons Cannabinoids reduce pain but can have side effects (memory impairment) Anti-inflammatory drugs (e.g. ibuprofen) reduce release of chemicals in damaged tissue Placebo, the mere expectation pain will be relieved Gate theory pain differs from time to time Inleiding Staats- en Bestuursrecht Erasmus Universiteit Rotterdam 2023/2024 © ○ body closes the 'gate' for pain with endorphins (released from pleasurable activities) 27 2023/2024 ©  Taste Taste receptors Stimulation of taste buds ○ 50 receptors for 5 different tastes ○ located in papillae combination of taste and smell (endopiriform cortex) Experience adaptation = reduction of taste due to fatigue of receptor cross-adaptation = reduction in response to a different taste Taste coding in the brain taste nerves go to the nucleus of the tractus solitarius (NTS) in the medulla ○ to somatosensory cortex for touch ○ to insula (primary taste cortex) Inleiding Staats- en Bestuursrecht Erasmus Universiteit Rotterdam 2023/2024 © 28 2023/2024 ©  Olfaction Smell olfactory cells line the epithelium ○ cilia (threadlike dendrites) ○ metabotropic effects Info send to olfactory bulb Women in general better sense of smell ○ Large individual differences Pheromones unconsciously affect behaviour ○ e.g. synchronize menstrual cycles vomeronasal organ only responds to pheromones Inleiding Staats- en Bestuursrecht Erasmus Universiteit Rotterdam 2023/2024 © 29 2023/2024 ©  1. D 2. Practice Questions detecting every movement due to fluid Chapter 6 1. What theory of pitch perception is correct? 3. moving the hair cells A 4. C a. place theory b. frequency theory c. Volley principle d. none, a combination is required to fully explain it 2. How does the vestibular system help with balance? 3. What is the dermatome? a. spinal nerves that send info from periphery to brain b. the ability to not feel pain due to a thick skin Terminology only in the exam bundle: c. combination of taste and smell information that is sent to - Amusia (tone deafness) - perfect pitch the endopiriform cortex - capsaicin d. cranial nerves that send info from the head to the brain - mild tissue damage (itch) 4. The vomeronasal organ contains receptors that detect: a. only sweet smells b. all smells c. only pheromones d. all smells and pheromones 30  Break 31  Chapter 7 - Movement Muscle contractions Muscle control by axon releasing acetylcholine in neuromuscular junction (synapse motor neuron) Extensor muscle Flexor muscle 3 categories smooth muscles = digestive system skeletal/striated muscles = movement of body cardiac muscles = heart Aerobic or anaerobic slow-twitch fibers aerobic do not fatigue oxygen as energy source (short term) fast-twitch fibers Inleiding Staats- enanaerobic create Bestuursrecht Erasmus oxygen Rotterdam Universiteit debt ATP and©glycogen as energy source 2023/2024 32 2023/2024 ©  Muscle Proprioceptors Proprioceptors detects the stretch and tension of muscles signals to spinal cord to adjust muscle ○ stretch reflex 2 types of proprioceptors muscles spindles golgi tendon organs ○ located parallel to muscles ○ located in tendons at opposite ends of a muscle ○ responds to a stretch ○ responds to an increase in tension ○ provide negative feedback ○ inhibit further contraction to prevent damage Inleiding Staats- en Bestuursrecht Erasmus Universiteit Rotterdam 2023/2024 © 33 2023/2024 ©  Motor patterns Reflex consistent, automatic response to a stimuli ballistic (once they occur they cannot be stopped or corrected) sequential movements central pattern generators are neural mechanisms of rhythmic patterns of movement motor program is a fixed sequence of movements Inleiding Staats- en Bestuursrecht Erasmus Universiteit Rotterdam 2023/2024 © 34 2023/2024 ©  Primary motor cortex primary motor cortex ○ orders movement outcome posterior parietal cortex ○ monitors position of body in environment supplementary motor cortex ○ planning ○ rapid sequence movements / habits ○ inhibit inappropriate behaviour Prefrontal cortex ○ also planning and habits ○ store relevant movement info premotorInleiding cortexStaats- en Bestuursrecht Erasmus Universiteit Rotterdam 2023/2024 © ○ active immediately before movement 35 2023/2024 ©  Spinal Cord corticospinal tract pathway from cerebral cortex to spinal cord lateral corticospinal tract ○ axons from primary motor cortex and the red nucleus medial corticospinal tract ○ axons from midbrain, tectum and vestibular nucleus What is the plane of this picture? Sagittal Inleiding Staats- en Bestuursrecht Erasmus Universiteit Rotterdam 2023/2024 © Horizontal Coronal 36 2023/2024 ©  Cerebellum Balance, coordination, timing of action and attention Cerebellar cortex ○ receives sensory input from spinal cord through cranial nerves ○ contains Purkinje cells ○ Parallel fibers activate purkinje cells one after another ○ The more Purkinje cells activated, the longer their inhibitory message Inhibit nuclei in cerebellum inhibit vestibular nuclei in the brain stem Inleiding Staats- en Bestuursrecht Erasmus Universiteit Rotterdam 2023/2024 © 37 2023/2024 ©  Basal Ganglia Spontaneous behaviour, habits and reward Striatum (caudate nucleus & putamen) ○ receives input from cerebral cortex and substantia nigra ○ sends info to globus pallidus Globus Pallidus ○ sends info to thalamus and frontal cortex 2 pathways direct pathway = striatum inhibits globus pallidus further inhibiting the thalamus indirect pathway = inhibit competing movements ○ important in learned performance Inleiding Staats- en Bestuursrecht Erasmus Universiteit Rotterdam 2023/2024 © 38 2023/2024 ©  Movement disorders Parkinson's disease gradual loss of dopamine releasing axons from the substantia nigra less inhibitory input to _______________ globus pallidus increases inhibitory signal to thalamus symptoms: muscle tremors, slow movement and difficulty initiating voluntary movements genetic predisposition but also environmental influences Treatment options ○ L-dopa treatment (dopamine precursor) ○ experimenting with brain implants Huntington's disease severe neurological disorder (damaging protein huntington) symptoms: jerks, facial twitches and tremors extensive brain damage in basal ganglia and cerebral cortex ○ basal ganglia usually inhibits thalamus, thus increase thalamus activity Inleiding Staats- en Bestuursrecht Erasmus Universiteit Rotterdam 2023/2024 © confirmed causal genetic relationship (dominant gene on chromosome 4) 39 2023/2024 ©  Practice Questions Chapter 7 1. What statement is incorrect? a. muscle spindles respond to stretching b. golgi tendon organs are located parallel to a muscle 1. B c. muscle spindles are provide negative feedback 2. C d. golgi tendon organs respond to muscle tension 3. Huntington, because of damage in the basal ganglia which usually inhibits the thalamus 2. Which motor cortex is similar in function to the prefrontal cortex? 4. C a. primary motor cortex b. posterior parietal cortex c. supplementary motor cortex d. premotor cortex Terminology only in the exam bundle: - antisaccade task (inhibit automatic 3. A patient has an overly active thalamus. Is it more likely that the movement) person has Parkinson's or Huntington's disease? Why? - mirror neurons 4. What is not true about the cerebellum a. One of its main functions is balance and coordination b. It has more neurons than in the rest of the entire brain c. When many purkinje cells are activated at the same time, a long inhibitory response is seen d. Purkinje cells inhibit vestibular nuclei in the brain stem 40  Questions? 41  Answers: 1. D Questions: 2. Sham lesion 3. C 1. Which of the following is true of Oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells? a. Schwann cells provide myelin for nerve cells b. Oligodendrocytes are found within the brain c. A single schwann cell wraps a single segment of a peripheral nerve cell d. all of the above are correct 2. a _____ is required for the control group when performing a lesion 3. Neurotransmitters are secreted from the a. glia cell b. dendrite c. axon terminal d. soma 42  Answers: 1. presynaptic membrane Questions: 2. A 3. D 1. autoreceptors are located on the _______ 2. Hyperpolarization is _____ because of how slow ____ is a. potential becoming overly negative, K+ b. potential becoming overly negative, Na+ c. potential becoming overly positive, K+ d. potential becoming overly positive, Na+ 3. What is an advantage of myelination a. Myelin changes the height of action potential b. Myelin increases the energy requirement of a nerve cell c. Myelin reduces the threshold for induction of an action potential d. Myelin allows for quick and efficient transmission of action potential 43  Answers: 1. D Questions: 2. B 3. ventricles 1. What happens if a stimulus reaches -60 mV? a. slow firing action potential b. fast firing action potential c. high action potential of +60mv d. no action potential 2. Match up the correct receptor type and effect a. ionotropic; more time required to open an ion channel b. metabotropic; G protein activations leads to activation of a second messenger c. metabotropic; short lived effect on ion channels d. metabotropic; direct opening of an ion channel 3. Cerebrospinal fluid is produced within _____ 44  Answers: 1. Parietal; somatosensory Questions: What is the name of the lobe and what is its main function? 2. Occipital; visual 3. temporal; auditory 1 2 3 45  Answers: 1. C Questions: 2. C 3. B 1. The basal ganglia does not consists of a. putamen b. globus pallidus c. amygdala d. caudate nucleus 2. What procedure uses magnetic waves to alter brain neural activity? a. magnetoencephalography b. MRI c. transcranial magnetic stimulation d. optogenetics 3. What is a key advantage of a reversible lesion? a. Axons of passage are not affected by reversible procedures b. each animal can serve as its own control c. cell bodies are not affected by reversible procedures d. such lesions affect brain tissue near the tip of the lesion device 46  Answers: 1. A Questions: 2. B 3. B, C, E, D, A 1. A unique feature of the fovea is that it a. contains only cone photoreceptors b. mediates vision in dim light c. does not contain any photoreceptors d. is unable to distinguish fine detail 2. the ventral visual stream projects to ____ and is involved in _____ a. temporal lobe, how/where an object is b. temporal lobe, what an object is c. parietal lobe, how/where an object is d. parietal lobe, what an object is 3. Put the parts of the auditory system in the correct order from where the sound enters a. hair cells b. spinna c. auditory canal d. oval window & cochlea e. stirrup, anvil and hammer 47 48 Thank you for your attention. I would appreciate it if you would evaluate https://www.klanten vertellen.n l/invite-lin this training. Checkvvyour email to give k/1039380 /tentame ntrainingen me a review! &reference ?lang=nl _code=2 28593 Inleiding Staats- en Bestuursrecht Erasmus Universiteit Rotterdam 2023/2024 © 2023/2024 ©