Molecules - Carbohydrates - Lipids - BIOL107-T2
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University of Alberta
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Summary
These notes cover carbohydrates and lipids, including their structures, functions, and examples. They discuss monosaccharides, disaccharides, polysaccharides, fatty acids, glycerol, and triglycerides. The notes also address the differences between saturated and unsaturated fats and explain the importance of these molecules in energy storage and cellular function.
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**MOLECULES - CARBOHYDRATES -LIPIDS P43** 02.1: **MOLECULES** ![](media/image2.png) Carb: CHO Lipids - CHOP Proteins - CHONS Nucleic acids - CHONP ![](media/image4.png) \- taken by an electric microscope \- Mostly water? ㄴ water is the MEDIUM \^\^ ![](media/image6.png) \- carbohydrates...
**MOLECULES - CARBOHYDRATES -LIPIDS P43** 02.1: **MOLECULES** ![](media/image2.png) Carb: CHO Lipids - CHOP Proteins - CHONS Nucleic acids - CHONP ![](media/image4.png) \- taken by an electric microscope \- Mostly water? ㄴ water is the MEDIUM \^\^ ![](media/image6.png) \- carbohydrates and proteins tend to vary a lot depending on the cell; lipids are more stable \- ![](media/image8.png) \- Carbon Dioxide is inorganic: ㄴ WHY? \- Carbon Dioxide is inorganic: ㄴ WHY? ㄴ organic compounds include **covalent bonds** H-C or C-C, CO2 does not have these bonds ![](media/image10.png) \- skeletal diagrams are what is usually used \- hexane: at the ends of the line and at the vertices, there are carbon atoms which are not shown (you show them by connecting them with lines) \- hexane has 6 atoms \- \- ![](media/image12.png) ![](media/image14.png) \- ionic- di-pole \- list is ordered by strength - ![](media/image16.png) Monomers combined = polymer DNA - polymer etc. Synthesis of complex organic molecules ![](media/image18.png) dehydration reaction occurs during synthesis \- dehydration occur when combining monomers \- hydroxyl and hydrogen will be exposed, which form water (dehydration) since you\'re removing water \- you leave the valance shells empty by 1 electron on the molecules... this creates a covalent bond between the two molecules Monomer Dimer -trimer and onward ![](media/image20.png) polymers Polymer branching is possible if there are suitable branching points \- polymers can be branched \- can interact with one or more of the monomers \- we use this technique for carb storage for energy ![](media/image22.png) Hydrolysis is the opposite of dehydration synthesis \- ADD water (to retrieve monomer) \- break down by hydrolysis Hydrolysis occurs during breakdown of polymers CARBOHYDRATES 02.2 ![](media/image24.png) Monosaccharides Disaccharides Oligosaccharides polysaccharides \- get examples ![](media/image26.png) monosaccharides \- ex: ribose, glucose, fructose, etc. \- 'ose' name given to sugars \- by definition, these are polyhydroxy aldehydes or \_\_\_ ketones ㄴ depends where the Oxygen is bonded (if it's on the second Carbon, it is a ketone) -carbonyl group Sugar alcohols \- missing the carbonyl group \- it has a hydroxyl group instead. ![](media/image28.png) Glucose is central to many metabolic pathways Major source of carbon and energy E coli monosaccharides \- not linear - they're in rings \- because C1 or C2, will react with -xyl to form a ring \- 1 and 6-carbon monosaccharides are usually ring structures ![](media/image30.png) Ring structures can take on different forms based on ring membership \- ring can be 5 or 6 sided; ㄴ ketones are usually 5ring- ㄴ 6 - Carbon 1 has the Oxygen to react with Carbon 5 \- polymers of each form have different properties \- if hydroxyl is pointing down - called alpha glucose; pointing up, beta glucose - same molecule with different shapes ![](media/image32.png) Glucose mods and derivatives \- NAG glucosamine Disaccharides \- glucose is usually used for energy transport etc. for humans \- Dehydration reaction makes the ethyl bond when: glucose + fructose = sucrose ![](media/image34.png) Oligosaccharides Short chain of simple sugars Fructans Found in plants Dietary component \- **short chain** \- \- polysaccharides \- long chains ![](media/image36.png) glycogen \- main storage of carbohydrates in animals. (short term storage) ㄴ in liver, striated muscles. \- has a **protein core** \- carbon 1 is linking to carbon 4 in the other molecule (alpha 1-\>6) (a 1-\>4) \- plants store glucose in the form of starch \- longer term storage ㄴ **2 kinds of starches:** **Amylose:** no branching; only alpha 1-\>4 **Amylopectin:** has branching; rate of branching is much lower; has alpha 1-\>6 at the branching points ![](media/image38.png) Cellulose Plant cells Most abundant natural polymer on earth Cotton is 90% cellulose Beta \- same linkage but different isomer... you end up with cellulose -**structural** component in plant cells; indigestible in terms of it being a source of energy \- making long chains that turn into microfibril (used as building material for a wall in the cell of a plant) Chitin \- **structural** \- exoskeleton; fungi cell walls \- NAG 1-\>4 \- chitin ![](media/image40.png) Is this a monosaccharide? \- 1 aldehyde group = it's a monosaccharide \- monosaccharide: a carbon chain anywhere from 3-7 carbons which is a poly hydroxy aledhyde (many hydroxyl groups, and one aldehyde group (same as carbonyl group, whether it's on carbon 1 or 2)) ![](media/image42.png) **LIPIDS** 02.3 ![](media/image44.png) Organic molecules soluble in non-polar solvents \- not soluble in water as they don't have any hydroxyl groups \- broad class of molecules **- DO NOT for polymers** Fatty acids Palmitic acid 16:0 \- one specific class of molecule under lipids \- **hydrocarbon** that at one end, has a **carboxyl group** \- "alpha" is the carbon that forms the carboxylic group \- last carbon, (4-24) is **omega** (w) \- less solubility as you lengthen the chain; more as you shorten it \- 16.0 (16, number of Carbons; 0, zero double bonds) \- **saturated fatty acid (**saturated with hydrogen) ![](media/image46.png) \- 16.1 (there is one double bond) \- bent because of the effect of the double bond (n-7) omega 7 fatty acid \- **unsaturated fatty acid** \- when you get a double bond (less hydrogens in general compared to fatty acid \^\^) Glycerol or glycerin \- not carb because it doesn't have the aldehyde group, only hydroxyl group \- useful for fatty acids to attach to \- ![](media/image48.png) \- fatty acids attach to glycerol by esterification, through the dehydration reacion High density for storage \- when all 3 Carbons are attached to a fatty acid molecule, it is called a **fat** or an **oil** \- tri**acyl**glycerides \- used as medium to store other things in the fat which are fat soluble \- serve as energy storage in most organisms ![](media/image50.png) \- **fats** are saturated and is **solid at room temperature** \- higher melting point \- butter is made from the fats found in milk Oil Oils are triglycerides where ethere is at least one unsaturation in at least one fatty acid. \- liquid at room temperature \- at least one double bond in at least one of the fatty acids \- common for plants to store oils; (we store fats, but plants also store fats) ![](media/image52.png) Cis and trans fats \- both have a single double bond \- elaidic: solid at room temperature \- oleic: liquid at room temp \- one acts as if it is saturated \- because in the cis, they're pointing to one side, and in trans, they're pointing to different sides (shapes the molecule) \- elaidic acid - trans - striaght - solid \- poleic acid - cis - bent - liquid What causes the bend?? Double bonds are rotationally stable. Cis "the same" H atoms bound to either Cs on the same side. \- causes the **bend!** (position of Hydrogen) Trans "different" Bout to either Cs on **different sides** ![](media/image54.png) Cis-trans isomerization Light energy causes lipid to isomerize \- shape change \- signal is interpreted by the brain Retinal is bound to proteins in the retina \- capturing light in the vision cycle \- made from vitamin A 11-cis retinal **phospholipids** Swap a fatty acid for a **phosphate** **- amphiphatic** \- phosphate **head** strongly **hydrophilic** \- one of the glycerol carbons has a phosphate group ![](media/image56.png) **Amazing phospholipid** Ester bond, choline, containing N, attached to one of the Os in phosphate Amphiphatic )=amphiphilic) (has both hydrophilic and hydrophobic parts) \- main charge driving the phosphate head is nitrogen, but the phosphate itself is charged (polar) Phospholipid tails \- head (phosphate head) \- tails (fatty acids) \- tails can be saturated or unsaturated ![](media/image58.png) Phospholipid packing density \- you can pack **fewer** molecules in the same space if one of the tails is **unsaturated** (so bent is unsaturated) \- causes the difference in melting point (if molecules are further apart, the melting point is lower, behaves more like a liquid and vice versa) Phospholipids spontaneously form a bi-layers \- in water and they are the basis of the cell membrane NOT the cell membrane Hydrophilic (polar) head Hydrophobic tali ㄴ naturally aggregate into this bi-layer ![](media/image60.png) **Steroids** \- different class of lipids \- ex: cholesterol Steroids are used as signalling molecules in animals \- estradiol: kind of estrogen, one of the main ones Testosterone Vitmain D is based off cholesterol (that our body makes, we just modify it to serve other purposes) ![](media/image62.png) \- ecdyson Insect molting hormone \- **Waxes** are another class of lipid: lipid chains of alkanes -carnauba wax \- waxes are hydrophobic \- used by organisms to limit their exposure to dehydration ![](media/image64.png) **Glycolipids** \- also present in the cell membrane \- crucial to the immune response \- sugars - glycerol - fatty acids (difference is the sugar instead of the phosphate THUS the glyco instead of "phospho" Sugar molecule can be one or more sugar molecules \- reason why blood types exist Complex lipid-saccharide molecules **Lipopolysaccharides** \- structural component of the cell walls of some bacteria EColi ㄴ uses it as a means of protection Lipid A is responsible for the toxicity of the pathogenic bacteria ㄴ two main sugars ㄴ sugars are polar (faces out of the cell) ![](media/image66.png) Energy reserves. Long term energy storage **Fats** ㄴ refers specifically to glycerol with 3 fatty acids ㄴ huge energy reserves for most organism ㄴ Fat storage in adipocytes Inuit have a greater proportion of subcutaneous fat compared with Europeans who tend to have more visceral adipose tissue \- beneficial in cold environments as subcutaneous fat has insulating properties ![](media/image68.png) **Glycogen:** \- we don't have protein reserves \- Energy reserves Bacteria - oils and glycogen Fish - fats/oils and glycogen Plants - fats/oils and starch Fish do not control their body temperature, so in cold waters, fish would prefer oils (for a more fluid reserve) ![](media/image70.png) Carbohydrates and lipids \- many functions in cell \- energy storage 4 Cal/g Simple to break down Slow to break down LipidsL 9 Cal/g Carbs and lipids recap