AP Psychology Unit 3 Study Guide PDF

AP Psychology Unit 3 Study Guide Reliability v Validity Reliability: The consistency of a research study or measuring test. Validity: The extent to which a test measures wha...

AP Psychology Unit 3 Study Guide Reliability v Validity Reliability: The consistency of a research study or measuring test. Validity: The extent to which a test measures what it claims to measure. Test-retest/split-half reliability Test-retest reliability: checks if repeated tests or administrations lead to similar scores or results. Split-half reliability: checks if both halves or parts of a test measure the same thing. IQ test bias IQ test bias: The tendency of an IQ test to favor certain groups over others, leading to unfair outcomes. IQ formula IQ formula: A formula used to calculate an individual's intelligence quotient: - IQ = (Mental Age / Chronological Age) × 100 General intelligence (g) General intelligence (g): represents the idea that an individual's overall intelligence is a compilation of different specific abilities. It suggests that if someone is good at one type of cognitive task, they're likely to be good at others too. - Measured by IQ test Flynn effect The rise in average IQ scores over time across generations Standardization v factor analysis Standardization: The process of establishing consistent testing procedures and norms for a test. Factor analysis: A statistical technique that enables researchers to identify clusters of test items that measure a common ability. Aptitude v achievement test Aptitude: A test designed to predict a  person's future performance or ability to learn new skills. Achievement test: A test that measures a person's current knowledge or skill in a specific subject area. Piaget’s stages/ages/milestones Sensorimotor (0-2 years): Infants explore the world through senses and actions, developing object permanence (understanding that objects continue to exist even when out of sight) - Object Permanence. Preoperational (2-7 years): Children use language and imagination but struggle with egocentrism (difficulty understanding others' perspectives) and conservation (understanding that quantity remains the same despite changes in shape or appearance). - Struggle w egocentrism and conservation Concrete Operational (7-11 years): Children gain the ability to perform logical operations, grasp conservation, and think more systematically about concrete objects. - Grasp conservation Formal Operational (12 years and up): Adolescents develop the ability to think abstractly, logically, and hypothetically, solving complex problems using abstract thinking. - Abstract Thinking Cross-sectional v h longitudinal Cross-sectional research: A research method that compares individuals of different ages or developmental stages at one point in time. Longitudinal research: A research method that follows the same group of individuals over an extended period to observe changes over time. Fluid v crystallized intelligence Fluid intelligence: The ability to think  abstractly and solve novel problems, which tends to decline with age. Crystallized intelligence: The accumulated knowledge and verbal skills that tend to remain stable or increase with age. Temperament The inherent traits and patterns of behavior, such as activity level, mood, and emotional reactions, that are present from birth. Critical period A specific period during development when certain experiences or stimuli are essential for normal development (e.g., language acquisition). Lorenz imprinting The process by which certain animals, like ducks, form an attachment to the first moving object they see, typically their mother. Harlow’s monkeys A series of experiments where infant monkeys preferred to stay close to a soft, comforting surrogate mother, rather than a wire mother that provided food, highlighting the importance of comfort in attachment. Vygotsky’s zone of proximal The range of tasks that a child can perform developmen with the assistance of a more capable individual, such as an adult or peer. It is the difference between what a child can do independently and what they can achieve with support. Scaffold Supporting or coaching as the individual works toward more complex tasks Productive language stages Refer to the phases of language development in children when they start to produce their own words and sentence - Pre-linguistic stage (0-12 months) Communicate through nonverbal means such as crying, facial expressions, and body language. - One-word speech (12-18 months) - Two-word speech (18-24 months)\ - Telegraphic Speech: only the nouns and verbs necessary, ex. give cookie - Overgeneralization: error in language when young children apply  rules about grammar to every example before they learn about exceptions - Overextension: language error when young children are too broad with a particular word. ex. child refers to all moving vehicles as a car Accommodation v assimilation Accomodation: The process of modifying existing schemas or creating new ones to incorporate new information that doesn't fit into existing schemas. Assimilation: The process of incorporating new information into existing schemas without changing the schema. Theory of mind Theory of mind: The ability to understand that others have their own thoughts, beliefs, and perspectives that may differ from one's own. Erikson’s stages 1. Trust vs. Mistrust (Infancy from birth to 18 months) a. If a child successfully develops trust, the child will feel safe and secure in the world. 2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (Toddler years from 18 months to three years) a. Children who successfully complete this stage feel secure and confident, while those who do not are left with a sense of inadequacy and self-doubt 3. Initiative vs. Guilt (Preschool years from three to five) a. Success in this stage leads to a sense of purpose. Children who try to exert too much power experience disapproval, resulting in a sense of guilt. 4. Industry vs. Inferiority (Middle school years from six to 11) a. Children who are encouraged by parents and teachers develop a feeling of competence and belief in their skills. Those who receive little  or no encouragement will doubt their abilities to be successful. 5. Identity vs. Confusion (Teen years from 12 to 18) a. Those who receive proper encouragement and reinforcement through personal exploration will emerge from this stage with a strong sense of self and feelings of independence and control. Those who remain unsure of their beliefs and desires will feel insecure and confused about themselves and the future. 6. Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young adult years from 18 to 40) a. Successful resolution of this stage results in the virtue known as love. 7. Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle age from 40 to 65) a. Being proud of your accomplishments, watching your children grow into adults, and developing a sense of unity with your life partner are important accomplishments of this stage 8. Integrity vs. Despair (Older adulthood from 65 to de a. Those who feel proud of their accomplishments will feel a sense of integrity. Successfully completing this phase means looking back with few regrets and a general feeling of satisfaction Insecure (avoidant & anxious) v secure Insecure attachment (avoidant & anxious): attachment Attachment styles where children may avoid closeness (avoidant) or become anxious about their caregiver’s availability (anxious). Secure attachment: A healthy attachment style where children feel comfortable  exploring the world and seeking comfort from their caregiver when needed. Parenting styles The approach parents take in raising their children, typically categorized as *authoritative (high warmth, high control), authoritarian (low warmth, high control), permissive (high warmth, low control), or neglectful (low warmth, low control). Psychometrics The field of psychology that deals with the theory and technique of psychological measurement, including the development and validation of tests. Syntax v semantics Syntax: The rules governing the structure of sentences, including word order. Semantics: The meaning of words and sentences, as distinct from syntax. Phoneme v Morpheme Phoneme: The smallest unit of sound in a language. Morpheme: The smallest unit of meaning in a language. Research methods Meta-analysis: A statistical technique that combines the results of multiple studies to identify patterns and draw more general conclusions. Random selection purpose The process of selecting participants from a population in a way that gives each individual an equal chance of being chosen, used to ensure that the sample is representative of the population. Operational definition A precise definition of a variable or concept that allows it to be measured in a specific, testable way.