AP PSCH Unit 0 Notes Guide PDF

Unit 0: Science Practices Guided Notes Apply psychological perspectives, theories, concepts, and research findings. Evaluate qualitative and quantitative research methods and study designs. Evaluate representations of psychological concepts in quantitative and qualitative research, inc...

Unit 0: Science Practices Guided Notes Apply psychological perspectives, theories, concepts, and research findings. Evaluate qualitative and quantitative research methods and study designs. Evaluate representations of psychological concepts in quantitative and qualitative research, including tables, graphs, charts, figures, and diagrams. Develop and justify psychological arguments using evidence. Textbook Topic Learning Objective Pages Identify psychology-related concepts in descriptions or Unit 0 representations of data. Explain how cultural norms, expectations, and circumstances, as well as cognitive biases apply to behavior and mental processes. 0-4 – 15 0.1 Psychological Evaluate the appropriate use of research design elements in 0-18 – 19 Science and Research experimental AND non-experimental methodology. 0-32 – 34 Design Interpret quantitative or qualitative inferential data from a given table, graph, chart, figure, or diagram. Determine the type of research design(s) used in a given study. 0.2 Evaluate the appropriate use of research design elements in 0-16 – 18 Non- non-experimental methodologies. Experimenta l 0-22 – 26 Research Interpret quantitative or qualitative inferential data from a given table, graph, chart, figure, or diagram. Determine the type of research design(s) used in a given study. Evaluate the appropriate use of research design elements in 0.3 experimental methodology. 0-27 – 29 Experiment al Research Interpret quantitative or qualitative inferential data from a given table, graph, chart, figure, or diagram. Calculate and interpret measures of central tendency, variation, and percentile rank in a given data set. 0.4 Statistical 0-40 – 46 Reasoning Interpret quantitative or qualitative inferential data from a given table, graph, chart, figure, or diagram. 0.5 Ethics in Evaluate whether a psychological research scenario followed 0-34 – 37 Research appropriate ethical procedures.  Psychological Science and Research Design Psychology: The scientific study of behavior and mental process Critical thinking: The ability to analyze information carefully, evaluate evidence, identify biases, and question assumptions, rather than automatically accepting conclusions, to form well-reasoned judgments based on logical reasoning and not just intuition Cognitive Biases Hindsight bias: The tendency for people to believe they could have predicted an event’s outcome after it has already happened Overconfidence: A cognitive bias where individuals overestimate their own abilities, knowledge, or accuracy of their judgments, leading to an excessive certainty in their beliefs, often resulting in poor decision-making due to an inaccurate assessment of their capabilities Confirmation bias: The tendency to actively seek out information that supports one's existing beliefs while ignoring or downplaying evidence that contradicts them Elements of Research Design Hypothesis: A specific, testable prediction about the relationship between two or more variables The principle that a scientific hypothesis or theory must be able to be What is falsifiability? proven false through observation or experimentation Operational definition: A precise and measurable description of a variable in a study, outlining exactly how the variable will be measured and manipulated, allowing other researchers to replicate the study by understanding exactly what is being studied Operationalizing ensures that variables are defined in measurable Why is it important to terms, making studies testable and replicable. This clarity helps operationalize within a maintain consistency and validity in psychological research. study? Outcomes Reliability: The consistency of a research study or measurement. A test is reliable if it produces the same results under consistent conditions. Validity: The extent to which a test or study measures what it claims to measure. High validity means the results accurately reflect the intended concept. Reliable, but not valid Unreliable and Reliable and valid  hence not valid Generalizability: The extent to which research findings apply to broader populations beyond the study sample. It reflects how well results can be generalized to real-world settings. Representation Population Sample The entire group of individuals a researcher is A subset of individuals selected from a population interested in studying. Samples are drawn from for participation in a study. this group to conduct research and make inferences. Sampling: The process of selecting individuals from a population to participate in a study.It aims to create a representative group for accurate and generalizable findings. Sampling bias: occurs when a sample is not representative of the population, leading to distorted or unreliable research results. This can affect the study's validity and generalizability Convenience sampling: A non-random sampling method where participants are selected based on ease of access, rather than being representative of the population. This can lead to sampling bias. Representative sample: Closely mirrors the characteristics of the larger population, ensuring that the study's results can be generalized to that population. Random sampling: A method where each individual in the population has an equal chance of being selected for the study, helping to reduce bias and increase generalizability A representative sample is crucial because it ensures that the study's findings can be generalized to the broader population, Why is it crucial to have enhancing the validity and applicability of the results. a representative sample? Measurement Instruments Qualitative research Quantitative research Focuses on exploring phenomena through Involves collecting and analyzing numerical data to nonnumerical data, such as interviews, identify patterns, relationships, or trends, often observations, and case studies, to gain in-depth using surveys, experiments, or statistical methods. understanding of behaviors, experiences, or social contexts. Example(s) Example(s) In-depth interviews with participants to explore A survey measuring students' test scores before their personal experiences with stress and after a tutoring program to assess its management techniques. effectiveness. Survey Method Survey Surveys can be used in experimental, correlational, or descriptive How can surveys be used studies to gather data on attitudes, behaviors, or characteristics. in other types of studies? Pros Cons Efficient way to collect data from large Responses may be biased or inaccurate. groups. Limited depth of information, especially in Can gather both qualitative and closed-ended questions. quantitative data. Easy to administer and analyze. Self-report bias: Occurs when participants provide inaccurate or misleading answers, often due to social desirability, memory recall issues, or a desire to present themselves in a favorable light. Social desirability bias: Social desirability bias occurswhen participants answer questions in away that they believewill be viewed favorably by others, rather than providing truthful responses. Conclusions Peer review: The process where experts in the field evaluate a research study before it is published, ensuring the study's quality, validity, and reliability. Replication: The process of repeating a study to verify its results and ensure that the findings are reliable and generalizable. Replication is important because it confirms the reliability and validity of research findings, ensuring that results are not due to chance or Why is replication error and can be generalized to other settings. important?  Non-Experimental Research What benefit can Non-experimental research can provide valuable insights into non-experimental research relationships between variables without manipulating them, helping have within psychological to explore behaviors, attitudes, or phenomena in natural settings. science? What limitation does all A key limitation of non-experimental research is that it cannot non-experimental research establish causal relationships between variables, only correlations have? or associations. Case Study Case study: An in-depth, detailed examination of an individual or a small group, often used to explore rare or complex phenomena in psychology.It provides rich qualitative data but lacks generalizability. Pros Cons Provide in-depth, detailed information. Quality of results depends on the quality Useful for studying rare or unique cases. of the included studies. Can generate new hypotheses and Can be affected by publication bias if insights. negative results are under reported. Meta-Analysis Meta-analysis: A statistical technique that combines the results of multiple studies on the same topic to identify patterns, assess the strength of findings, and draw more reliable conclusions. Pros Cons Provide in-depth, detailed information. The quality of results depends on the Useful for studying rare or unique cases quality of the included studies. Can generate new hypotheses and Can be affected by publication bias if insights. negative results are under reported. Naturalistic Observation Naturalistic observation: Involves observing and recording behavior in its natural environment without interference or manipulation by the researcher. It provides realistic insights but may lack control over variables. Pros Cons Provides authentic, real-world data. Lack of control over variables can lead to Helps study behavior in natural settings confounding factors. without manipulation. Observer bias may influence findings. Can generate hypotheses for further Ethical concerns if participants are research. unaware they are being observed. Correlation Correlation: A statistical relationship between two variables,where changes in one variable are associatedwith changes in another.It does not imply causation, only that the variables move together in someway.  Pros Cons Helps identify relationships between Does not establish causality. variables. Can be affected by third variables Useful for predicting outcomes and (confounding factors) identifying trends. Positive Correlation Negative Correlation No Correlation What is the name for Scatterplots these graphs that demonstrate correlation? Correlational Coefficient Correlational coefficient: A statistical measure (r) that quantifies the strength and direction of a relationship between two variables. It ranges from -1 to +1, with values closer to ±1 indicating a stronger relationship, and values near 0 indicating no correlation. What should you remember Simply stated, what does What range does a in reference to positive and a correlational coefficient correlational coefficient negative? tell us? have? the strength and direction of the A correlational coefficient ranges For correlation coefficients, relationship between two from -1 to +1. A value of +1 remember that positive means variables indicates a perfect positive both variables move in the same correlation, -1 indicates a perfect direction, and negative means negative correlation, and 0 they move in opposite directions. indicates no correlation. Which correlational coefficient has a stronger relationship within the given sets? -.70 or +.65 +.08 or +.33 +.62 or -.89 -.54 or +.21 The first thing to look at to The first thing to look at is the sign (+ or-) of the correlational determine the value of a coefficient. correlational coefficient & why: The second thing to look The second thing to look at is the magnitude (the number's distance at to determine the value from 0). The closer the coefficient is to +1 or-1, the stronger the of a correlational relationship between the variables. coefficient & why: Considerations for Correlations Correlation ≠ causation: Just because two variables are correlated, it doesn't mean one causes the other. Other factors, such as a third variable, may be influencing the relationship. Directionality problem: Occurs in correlational research when it's unclear which variable is influencing the other. For example, if two variables are correlated, it's uncertain whether A causes B, or B causes A.  The third-variable problem occurswhen a third, unexamined variable is responsible for the observed correlation between two other variables, creating a false impression of a direct relationship between them. The phenomenonwhere extreme or unusual scores tend to move closer to the average (mean) in subsequent measurements. This happens because random factors can cause extreme scores, but over time, they tend to normalize. Experimental Methodology Experiment: : A research method where the researcher manipulates one variable (independent variable) to observe its effect on another variable (dependent variable),while controlling for other factors. This allows for the establishment of causal relationships. What sets the experimental method apart from the other types of research methods? it allows researchers to manipulate an independent variable and control other variables, enabling them to establish cause-and-effect relationships, unlike correlational or descriptive methods, which only identify associations. Elements of Experimentation Experimental Group Control Group the group in an experiment that is exposed to the The group in an experiment that does not receive independent variable or treatment, allowing the treatment or manipulation, serving as a researchers to observe its effect compared to the baseline to compare the effects of the control group. independent variable on the experimental group. Independent Variable Dependent Variable The factor that is manipulated or changed by the the outcome or factor that is measured in an researcher to observe its effect on the dependent experiment.It is affected by changes in the variable. independent variable. Placebo: A treatment or substance that has no active therapeutic effect but is given to participants to control for the psychological effects of believing they are receiving a real treatment. An experiment uses a placebo to control for the placebo effect, Why would an where participants experience changes in their condition simply experiment need to because they believe they are receiving treatment, not due to the use a placebo? treatment itself. Considerations Additional Variables Placebo effect: Occurs when participants experience real changes in their condition after receiving a placebo, believing it to be an active treatment. This psychological response can influence the results of an experiment. A placebo can lead to nocebo effects, where participants experience What negative effects negative side effects or worsening of symptoms simply because they can a placebo expect harm, despite receiving an inactive treatment. This can skew have? research results or cause unnecessary distress. Confounding variable: An extraneous factor that varieswith the independent variable and affects the dependent variable, making it difficult to determinewhether changes in the dependent variable are due to the independent variable or the confound. In a study on exercise andweight loss, diet could be a What are some examples confounding variable, as it also affectsweight loss. of confounding In research on sleep and academic performance, stress variables? levels could confound the results, as stress also impacts performance. Random assignment: The process of randomly assigning participants to different groups (e.g., experimental or control) in an experiment. This helps ensure that each group is similar at the start, controlling for potential confounding variables. Random assignment is about group allocation in an experiment, while How is this different from a random sampling is about how participants are chosen for the study. random sample? The purpose of random assignment is to ensure that each participant has an equal chance of being placed in any group, which helps control for pre-existing differences and reduces bias, allowing for a fair What is the purpose of test of the independent variable's effect. Yes, random assignment is random assignment? primarily used in the experimental method to ensure that groups are comparable at the start of the experiment. Is this only used in the experimental method? Bias Participant bias: : Occurs when participants' behavior or responses are influenced by their awareness of the study's purpose or expectations, rather than being purely influenced by the experimental conditions. This can distort the results. What are some Social desirability bias: Participants answer questions in away examples of they think will be viewed favorably, rather than truthfully. participant bias? Experimenter bias: Occurs when a researcher's expectations or preferences influence the outcome of an experiment, either consciously or unconsciously, affecting data collection, analysis, or interpretation. What are some examples Confirmation bias: A researcher may unintentionally focus on data that supports their hypothesis while overlooking data of researcher bias? that contradicts it. Single blind: One in which participants do not know whether they are in the experimental or control group, reducing the likelihood of participant bias. However, the experimenter may still knowwhich group each participant is in. Double blind: A double-blind study is one inwhich both the participants and the experimenters are unaware ofwho is in the experimental or control group. This helps reduce both participant and experimenter bias, ensuring more objective results. Single-blind: Usedwhen only preventing participant bias is When is it appropriate necessary, but the researcher may knowgroup assignments. to use one or the Double-blind: Usedwhen both participant and experimenter bias other? must be minimized, such as in clinical trials.  Statistical Reasoning Descriptive Statistics Inferential Statistics Descriptive statistics involve summarizing and Inferential statistics use sample data to make organizing data, using measures like mean, predictions or inferences about a larger median, mode, range, and standard deviation to population, often through hypothesis testing, describe the main features of a dataset. confidence intervals, and regression analysis. Descriptive Statistics Measures of Central Tendency Mean: The mean is the average of a set of numbers, calculated by adding all the values together and dividing by the number of values. Median: The median is the middle value in a data setwhen the numbers are arranged in ascending or descending order. Mode: The mode is the value that appears most frequently in a data set. A set may have one mode, more than one (bimodal or multimodal), or no mode if all values occur with equal frequency. Which measure of Mean central tendency is most impacted by outliers? Measures of Variation Range: The difference between the highest and lowest values in a data set.It shows the spread of the data. Standard deviation: Measures the average distance of data points from the mean, indicating how spread out the values are in a data set. A lower standard deviation means data points are closer to the mean,while a higher one indicates more variability. Explain standard Standard deviation tells you how much the values in a data set vary deviation in a way that from the average (mean). makes sense to you. Normal curve: Percentile rank: Percentile rank shows how you compare to others in a group.  Explain percentile rank Percentile rank shows how you compare to others in a group. in a way that makes sense to you. Give an example if helpful. Skewness Bell Curve- Negative Skew Bell Curve- Positive Skew What should you be The tail of the distribution paying attention to when deciding what type of skew it is? Bimodal Distribution Bimodal distribution: A bimodal distribution has two distinct peaks or modes, indicating that the data has two common values or clusters. This often suggests the presence of two different groups within the dataset. If one group scores around 60% and another around 90%, the Give an example of a distribution would show two peaks, one at each score cluster. bimodal distribution. Inferential Statistics Data can be generalized based on factors like: What factors influence Sample Representativeness: The sample should reflect the whether data can be population. generalized? Sample Size: Larger samples reduce sampling error. Statistical significance: The results of a study are unlikely to have occurred by chance, typically indicated by a p-value less than 0.05.It suggests a real effect or relationship exists in the data. The results of a study are likely not due to random chance, and there is evidence of a real effect or relationship in the data. What does statistical significance mean? Effect size: A measure of the strength or magnitude of a relationship or difference between variables, helping to understand the practical significance of the results.It is not influenced by sample size. The strength or magnitude of a relationship or difference between What does effect size variables, showing howimpactful the result is, regardless of sample communicate? size.  Ethics in Research Laboratory Setting What limitations and benefits does the laboratory setting have for research? Institutional Review Institutional review: The process by which an Institutional ReviewBoard (IRB) reviews research studies to ensure they adhere to ethical guidelines, protect participants' rights, and minimize risks. To ensure that research studies are ethical, protect participants' What is the importance of rights, and minimize harm. It helps maintain the integrity of the institutional review? research process and ensures compliance with ethical standards. Ethical Guidelines Informed Consent Informed consent: The process where participants are fully informed about the nature of a study, including any potential risks, and voluntarily agree to participate. It ensures that participation is based on understanding and free choice. Informed assent: When minors or individuals unable to give full informed consent are provided with age-appropriate information about a study and agree to participate, typically with consent from a legal guardian. Protection from Harm Protection from harm: Ensures that participants in a study are not exposed to physical or psychological harm. Researchers must minimize risks and provide support if any harm occurs during or after the study Confidentiality Confidentiality: The ethical obligation to protect participants' personal information and ensure it is not disclosed without their consent. Researchers must keep data secure and private. Debriefing Debriefing: The process that occurs after a study, where participants are informed about the true purpose of the research, any deception used, and any potential consequences. It ensures ethical transparency and provides participants with the opportunity to ask questions. Deception: Involves withholding information or providing false information to participants about the study's true purpose or procedures. It is used when necessary to prevent bias but must be followed by debriefing to explain the truth after the study. Confederate: An individual who is part of the research team but acts as a participant or bystander in the study. They help manipulate the experimental situation without the actual participants knowing they are part of the experiment