AP Psychology Unit 3 Test - PDF

Unit 3 test on monday AP PSYCHOLOGY Learning and Development Why study learning? If we had not been able to learn, we would have died out as a species long ago. Learning is the process that allows us to adapt to the changing conditions of the world around us. We can alter our actions until we fi...

Unit 3 test on monday AP PSYCHOLOGY Learning and Development Why study learning? If we had not been able to learn, we would have died out as a species long ago. Learning is the process that allows us to adapt to the changing conditions of the world around us. We can alter our actions until we find the behavior that leads us to survival and rewards, and we can eliminate actions that have been unsuccessful in the past. Without learning, there would be no buildings, no agriculture, no lifesaving medicines, and no human civilization. ***Prenatal Development & Milestones*** Developmental Controversies 1\. Nature vs. nurture 2\. Continuous vs. discontinuous stages of development 3\. Stability vs. change Biological Building Blocks of Development **Genetics:** science of heredity **DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid):** organic structure that contains the genetic code for proteins that control the life and traits of each cell **Gene:** DNA sequence **Chromosomes:** collection of DNA Biological Building Blocks of Development +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | | Humans have 46 chromosomes in | | | each cell (except egg and sperm | | | cells) | | | | | | ○ 23 from mother | | | | | | ○ 23 from father | | | | | | 22 autosomes | | | | | | 1 sex chromosome | | | | | | XY or XX | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ To What Extent Do Genetics Dictate Development? **Genetic and chromosomal disorders:** cystic fibrosis, sickle-cell anemia, Tay-Sachs, Down syndrome, Turner syndrome To What Extent Do Genetics Dictate Development? **Prenatal hazards:** teratogens ○ **Teratogen:** substance or factor that can cause a birth defect To What Extent Do Genetics Dictate Development? **Prenatal hazards:** maternal illness ○ As soon as the embryo starts to receive nutrients from the mother through the placenta, it becomes vulnerable to maternal diseases **[Critical Periods]** ○ Limb development affected at 3-8 weeks ○ Heart development affected at 2-6 weeks ○ Nervous system: 2-5 weeks ○ Eyes: 3-8 weeks ○ Teeth and roof of mouth: 7-12 weeks [Physical Development] **Fine and gross motor coordination** Reflexes ○ What baby reflexes can you think of? **Mechanism:** synaptic pruning ○ Like weeding a garden!  [Psychological Development]: Sensation **Touch:** most developed at birth **Smell:** well developed ○ Infants can tell the difference between their own mother's milk scent and another woman's milk scent within a few days after birth **Taste:** nearly fully developed ○ At birth, infants show a preference for sweets **Hearing:** functional, but takes a while to reach full potential ○ Newborns most responsive to high pitches (such as a woman's voice), and low pitches (man's voice) **Vision:** least functional ○ Cones take about 6 months to fully develop Physical Development in Adolescence [Main Milestones] Adolescent growth spurt [Puberty:] reproductive ability develops ○ Develop primary and secondary sex characteristics Menarche: first time a female experiences her menstrual period (age 10-16, avg \~12.4 years) Spermarche: male equivalent of a menarche -- growing facial hair, deepening of the voice Physical Development in Adulthood Adulthood spans most of the lifespan Leveling off and varying decline in\... ○ Reproductive ability (menopause) ○ Mobility ○ Flexibility ○ Reaction time ○ Visual and auditory sensory acuity ***Piaget\'s Stages of Development, Fluid/Crystallized Intelligence***  **Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 years old)** Children explore the world using their senses and ability to move. Object permanence ○ Peek-a-boo Understanding that concepts and mental images represent objects, people, and events **Preoperational Stage (2-7 years old)** Mentally represent and refer to objects and events with words or pictures Pretend play **Concrete Operational (7-12 years old)** Can conserve, reverse their thinking, and classify objects in terms of their many characteristics. Can think logically and understand analogies about concrete concepts **Formal Operational (12+ years old)** Use abstract reasoning about hypothetical events or situations Think about logical possibilities Use abstract analogies Systematically examine and test hypotheses ***Language, Vygotsky\'s Theory of Development*** **Rules of Language:** Grammar **Grammar:** system of rules governing the structure and use of language Noam Chomsky thought that language development and ability was innate ○ Language Acquisition Device (LAD) [Rules of Language: Grammar] Language is comprised of **building blocks** that can be combined in many ways according to specific rules ○ Phonemes ○ Morphemes ○ Syntax ○ Semantics ○ Pragmatics **Grammar: Phonemes** Basic units of **sound** in a language Ex: the letter "a" in car vs. day Phonemes are more than just single letters ○ Th, sh, au Infants are born with the ability to recognize all phonemes ○ After 9 months: **[use or lose]** → recognize only phonemes of the language to which they are exposed Humans use 100 phonemes (45 in English) **Grammar: Morphemes** Smallest units of meaning within a language ○ 2 morphemes in "playing" = play and ing  **Grammar: Syntax** +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Rules for combining words and | You are welcome to visit the | | phrases to form grammatically | cemetery where famous composers, | | correct sentences | artists, and writers are buried | | | daily except Thursday. | | Mix-ups can cause complete | | | misunderstandings!! | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ **Grammar: Semantics** Rules for determining the meaning of words and sentences Same semantics, different meaning: ○ Johnny hit the ball ○ The ball was hit by Johnny **Syntax and Semantics** Good syntax, bad semantics Colorless green ideas sleep furiously. Bad syntax, good semantics Fastly dinner eat, ballgame start soon. **Grammar: Pragmatics** Practical aspects of communicating with others (socially acceptable way of communicating) ○ Taking turns in a conversation ○ Use of gestures ○ Speaking to different audiences ○ Humor, sarcasm ○ **Intonation** [**Hemispheric Lateralization** ] Phonology, syntax, and semantics depend primarily (in right-handed people) on the **left cerebral hemisphere** Ability to understand metaphors and humor depend crucially on the brain's **right cerebral hemisphere** **Multilingual Learning** Kim et al. (1997) used fMRI to scan brains of groups of bilingual people while they thought about what they had done the previous day, using each of their 2 languages ○ 2 groups 1\. Learned 2 nd language as children 2\. Learned 2 nd language as adults Similar activation in comprehension (back left temporal lobe) for both languages BUT, people who learned 2 nd language as adults had more L frontal lobe and working memory activation ○ What does this tell us? **Language Development and Acquisition** Formal language develops from\... 1\. Cooing 2\. Babbling 3\. One-word stage 4\. Telegraphic speech **[Motherese]** Child-directed speech Short, pauses, careful enunciation, exaggerated intonation in high pitch Fits perfectly with infant perception **Cooing (2-6 months)** Infants communicate through crying, cooing, and non-verbal communication (facial expressions, body language) **Babbling (6-9 months)** Produce repetitive syllables ○ Ba-ba-ba ○ Ma-ma-ma Deaf or hard of hearing babies babble with their hands ○ Make repetitive movements in front of their bodies **One-Word Stage (9-18 months)** Use individual words to convey meaning Mama Dada Ball Juice Supplement with gestures **Telegraphic Stage (18-30 months)** Use short, simple sentences that only use essential words Leave out words like ○ The ○ And ○ Is "Mommy go work" **Overgeneralization** Children apply a grammatical rule too widely ○ --ed Eated Bringed ○ -es Mouses Gooses ○ "Cat" for "Tiger"  [Language Development Debate] +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Jean Piaget** | **Lev Vygotsky** | | | | | People need to have schemas or | Language help develop concepts | | concepts before they learn the | | | word for those concepts | Language helps the child learn | | | to control behavior | | | | | | "Mama" helps teach mama-ness | | | (warm, soft, food, safety) | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ **Vygotsky's Main Idea** Cognitive development is driven by **social interactions** with **more knowledgeable others** **More knowledgeable others:** parents, teachers, peers, caregivers, society, etc. **Vygotsky's ZPD** +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Zone of proximal development | | | (ZPD):** range of tasks someone | | | can accomplish with assistance | | | from a more knowledgeable other | | | | | | ○ Optimal area for learning and | | | growth! | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ **Vygotsky's Scaffolding** **Scaffolding:** process through which a more knowledgeable other provides support and guidance to a learner within their ZPD, gradually decreasing assistance as the child becomes more competent **Vygotsky's Main Takeaway** [Language] as a mechanism for cognitive development  ***Parenting Styles, Attachment & Temperament, ACEs*** **Ecological Systems Theory** Microsystem: groups that have direct contact with the individual Mesosystem: the relationship between groups in the microsystem Exosystem: indirect factors on an individual's life Macrosystem: cultural events that affect the individuals and others around them Chronosystem: the individual's current stage of life **Parenting Styles: Authoritarian** Highly concerned with rules. Can be rigid, controlling, uncompromising. [Outcomes]: children tend to be insecure, timid, withdrawn, and resentful. ○ As teenagers, they often rebel in harmful and self-destructive ways. Think: children in authoritaria**[N]** households hear "**[N]**o" often **Parenting Styles: Permissive** Parents don't place demands on the child. **[Two major types of permissive parents: ]** 1\. **Permissive Neglectful:** aren't around, allowing the child to do whatever they want unless it harms what the parent wants to do. 2\. **Permissive Indulgent:** parents are too involved and give into every whim/wish of the child, not understanding the child's flaws. **[Outcomes (of both)]**: selfish, immature, dependent, lacking social skills, and unpopular with peers. Think: per**[miss]**ive → **[miss]** out on a parental figure **Parenting Styles: Authoritative** Limits on behavior while maintaining warmth, love, affection, respect and willingness to listen to the child. Children have a say in rules, with the parents holding the final decision. **[Outcome]**: self-reliant and independent Think: children in authoritativ**[E]** households might hear "**[E]**xplain" **Attachment Style** [Attachment style:] how emotional bonds form between individuals, especially between a child and their primary caregiver. +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | [Types of attachment styles | | | ] | | | | | | Secure | | | | | | Avoidant | | | | | | Anxious | | | | | | Disorganized-disoriented | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ **Attachment Style** **Secure:** willingness to explore but still returned to "touch base." ○ Cause: love, trust, genuine affection, without possessiveness **[Insecure]** Avoidant: willingness to explore, but didn't return. ○ Cause: lack of care or responsiveness Anxious: clingy and unwilling to explore ○ Cause: misattuned and inconsistent parenting Disorganized-disoriented: unable to decide how to feel ○ Cause: a consequence of childhood trauma or abuse. Perceived fear is the central aspect of growing up. **Temperament** **Temperament:** behavioral and emotional characteristics that are fairly well established at birth. ○ **Easy:** regular sleep schedules of walking, sleeping, eating; adaptable to change. Easy to soothe. ○ **Difficult:** irregular schedules, unhappy with change, and difficult to soothe. ○ **Slow to Warm Up:** quiter, not unhappy but can be grumpy if change is too fast. If change is slow, they are accepting of it. **Separation Anxiety** Separation anxiety occurs when children express heightened anxiety or fear when away from a caregiver or in the presence of a stranger. ○ What do we value more in attachment: food or comfort? Harry Harlow's Monkeys **How Do Peer Relationships Develop Over Time?** Children engage with peers via play ○ **Parallel play:** similar activity alongside each other but not actually interacting with one another Do not influence one another's behavior Use similar toys to engage in similar activities independently ○ **Pretend play:** imaginative play in a make-believe context Adolescents rely more on peer relationships as they age ○ Demonstrate egocentrism (evident through **imaginary audience** and **personal fable**) **Adult Social Development Over Time** **Culture** plays a role in determining when adulthood begins and when major life events occur (social clock) Relationships with other adults result in adults forming families or family-like relationships ○ These provide mutual support and care Childhood attachment style can affect how adults form attachments to other adults **Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs)** Experience of **ACEs** has effects on relationships people form throughout the lifespan **Sociocultural differences** exist in what is considered an ACE and how **ACEs** affect outcomes people may experience ***Erikson\'s Stages of Psychosocial Development***  1\. **Infancy** - Trust vs. Mistrust Positive outcome: baby's needs are met, develop a sense of trust in people, expect needs to be met Negative outcome: needs are not met, develop a sense of mistrust, do not expect needs to be met 2\. **Toddler**- Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt "Can I do things myself or do I have to rely on others?" Positive outcome: independence, control over actions Negative outcome: self-doubt, shame for failing 3\. **Preschool Age** - Initiative vs. Guilt Positive outcome: control reactions to behavior, feel capable Negative outcome: feel irresponsible, anxious, and develop a sense of guilt ○ Excessive punishment can impede personal growth and result in guit 4\. **Elementary School Age** - Industry vs. Inferiority Positive outcome: competent, improves self-esteem, learn new skills successfully Negative outcome: feel inferior, fail at learning new skills 5\. **Adolescence** - Identity vs. Role Confusion Positive outcome: able to define their values, goals, and beliefs to develop a stable sense of identity Negative outcome: confusion, isolation, conforming rather than being themselves 6\. **Early Adulthood** - Intimacy vs. Isolation Positive outcome: find someone, share their identities, have a fulfilling relationship founded on psychological intimacy Negative outcome: isolation, loneliness, shallow relationships 7\. **Middle Adulthood** - Generativity vs. Stagnation Positive outcome: can focus on the next generation (Care), be productive and creative to leave a legacy Negative outcome: unable to focus outside themselves (egocentric), remain stagnated, self-centered and unfulfilled 8\. **Late Adulthood** - Integrity vs Despair Positive outcome: Come to terms with their lives and things they have/haven't done, let go of regrets, sense of completion ○ Death as the last stage of a full life Negative outcome: cannot let go of regrets, left things too late, see death as coming too soon ***Classical Conditioning*** +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Learning:** any relatively | | | permanent change in behavior | | | brought about by experience or | | | practice. | | | | | | Form of memory - learning | | | literally changes the brain | | | **Maturation:** changes not | | | caused by learning, but by the | | | growth and biological shifts of a | | | person | | | | | | Brain size expanding; muscles | | | growing in a child to accommodate | | | new skills like walking | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+