AP Psychology Unit 2 Notes Guide PDF

Unit 2: Cognition ESSENTIAL QUESTIONS Can you always trust your senses? Why don’t people always make good decisions? What strategies do you use to help you remember important things? Why aren’t our memories recorded by the brai...

Unit 2: Cognition ESSENTIAL QUESTIONS Can you always trust your senses? Why don’t people always make good decisions? What strategies do you use to help you remember important things? Why aren’t our memories recorded by the brain exactly how we experienced them? Topic Learning Objective Textbook Pages Explain how internal and external factors influence perception. 2.1 Perception 166-184 Explain how visual perceptual processes produce correct or incorrect interpretations of stimuli. 2.2 Thinking, Explain how psychological concepts and Problem- 187-202, theories account for thinking, problem-solving, Solving, 233 judgment, and Judgments, decision-making. and Decision Making 206-212, 2.3 Introduction Explain how the types, structures, and 215-216, to Memory processes of memory work. 222, 227, 229, 232 2.4 Encoding Explain how different encoding processes work 215-223 Memories to get information into memory. 2.5 Storing Explain how memory storage processes retain 226-229 Memories information in memory. 2.6 Retrieving Explain how memory retrieval processes get 207-208, Memories information out of memory. 232-235 2.7 Forgetting Explain possible reasons why memory failure and Other 238-250 or errors may occur. Memory Challenges  Explain how modern and historical theories describe intelligence. Explain how intelligence is measured. 2.8 Intelligence 254- 285 and Explain how systemic issues relate to the Achievement quantitative and qualitative uses of intelligence assessments. Explain how academic achievement is measured and experienced as compared to intelligence.  Perception: Internal & External Factors of Perception Principles of Perception Cognition: Cognition refers to the mental processes involved in gaining knowledge and understanding. These include thinking, learning, memory, problem-solving, decision-making, and language use. Essentially, cognition is how we process, store, and apply information in daily life. Sensation: Perception: The process of detecting and receiving physical The process of organizing and interpreting sensory stimuli from the environment information to give it meaning (e.g., recognizing a face) Top-down processing: Bottom-up processing: Perception driven by prior knowledge, Perception starts with raw sensory input, and the expectations, and experiences. brain builds meaning from it. Example: Reading messy handwriting by Example: Seeing a new shape for the first guessing the words based on context. time and trying to identify it. Internal Factors That Influence Schema: Mental frameworks or templates that help organize information. Example of Schema: A schema for a "dog" might include four Example of schema: legs, a tail, and barking. You might misidentify a wolf as a dog because it fits your schema. 1. Perceptual set: A predisposition to perceive something in a certain way, influenced by expectations or prior experiences. o Example of Perceptual Set: If you’re told to look for a Example of perceptual set: UFO, you might interpret a strange light in the sky as a spacecraft instead of a plane. External Factors That Influence  Perception is influenced by context, which provides situational clues; past experiences, which create expectations and mental frameworks; and cultural backgrounds, which shape focus and interpretation. These factors work together to form perceptual sets that filter and guide how we interpret the world beyond just sensory input. How can contexts, experiences, and cultural experiences influence what we perceive? Internal and External Processes Attention Selective attention: Divided attention: Selective Attention is the process of focusing on Divided Attention one specific task or stimulus while ignoring other distractions around us. Definition: The ability to focus on multiple tasks or stimuli at the same time. Example: At a party, you can focus on a Example: Trying to text while walking, or conversation with a friend while tuning listening to music while studying. out the background noise of other people Why it matters: Dividing attention often talking. reduces the quality of attention given to This ability allows us to concentrate on each task, making it harder to process what’s most important at the moment, but information fully. it can also cause us to miss other details or stimuli in the environment. Cocktail party effect: Divided Attention Definition: The ability to focus on multiple tasks or stimuli at the same time. Example: Trying to text while walking, or listening to music while studying. Why it matters: Dividing attention often reduces the quality of attention given to each task, making it harder to process information fully. Inattentional blindness: Definition: Failing to notice something that is in plain sight because attention is directed elsewhere. Example: Not noticing a person in a gorilla suit walking through a scene while you focus on counting basketball passes. Why it matters: It demonstrates how our attention can be so focused that we miss important details right in front of us.  Definition: Failing to notice something that is in plain sight because Example of attention is directed elsewhere. inattentional blindness: Example: Not noticing a person in a gorilla suit walking through a scene while you focus on counting basketball passes. Why it matters: It demonstrates how our attention can be so focused that we miss important details right in front of us. Change blindness: Definition: Failing to notice changes in a scene or environment, especially when the change happens gradually or in a distraction. Example: Not noticing a small detail in a familiar image that has changed after a brief distraction, like someone’s shirt color in a video. Why it matters: This shows how our brains can overlook changes when attention isn’t focused on them. Perceptual Principles Gestalt: Gestalt refers to a theory in psychology that suggests we perceive objects and scenes as whole, organized patterns rather than just a collection of individual parts. Example: When looking at a group of dots arranged in a circle, we perceive a "circle" instead of seeing just separate dots. This principle helps us make sense of the world by organizing sensory information into meaningful structures. How can this be stated in a simpler way? Means we tend to see things as a whole, not just individual parts. Example: When we see a group of dots arranged in a circle, we recognize it as a "circle," not just a bunch of dots. It helps our brain organize information into meaningful patterns to make sense of the world. With each definition, draw an example (or two) and explain how it demonstrates that principle if needed. Be sure to include other examples that are not visual if applicable. Closure: Definition: The brain fills in missing parts of an incomplete image to create a whole. Example: A dotted circle is perceived as a full circle, even though it's not complete. Why it matters: This principle allows us to recognize objects quickly, even if part of them is obscured. Proximity: Definition: Objects close to each other are perceived as part of the same group. Example: In a series of dots, those closer together are grouped as rows or clusters. Why it matters: This helps us organize visual information efficiently, such as distinguishing text paragraphs from random markings.jkjkx Similarity: Definition: Objects that look alike are perceived as part of the same group. Example: A row of red dots among blue dots is seen as a distinct pattern because of color similarity. Why it matters: It helps us identify patterns or categorize items quickly, such as recognizing a team by their uniform.  Figure ground: Definition: The principle that we tend to focus on the main object (the "figure") and separate it from the background (the "ground"). Example: In an image of a white vase against a black background, we focus on the vase (figure) while the black space becomes the background (ground). Alternatively, the same image might also be perceived as two faces in profile (figure) against the white background (ground). Why it matters: This principle helps us identify and focus on important objects or details in our environment, allowing us to distinguish what’s most relevant from what’s not. Perception: Visual Perceptual Processes Depth Perception Depth perception: Definition: The ability to perceive the world in three dimensions and judge the distance of objects. It allows us to understand how far away objects are and how they relate to each other in space. Example of Depth Perception: When you catch a ball, you judge its distance and adjust your hand position based on your depth perception, allowing you to catch it accurately. Binocular Depth Cues Binocular depth cues: These cues rely on the use of both eyes to judge depth and distance. Retinal disparity: Definition: The slight difference in the images seen by each eye due to their separation. The brain uses this difference to calculate depth. When you focus on a nearby object, like a pencil, and close one eye, Give an example of the position of the pencil relative to the background shifts. When you retinal disparity: switch eyes, the shift is different, helping your brain calculate how close the pencil is. Convergence: Definition: The inward movement of both eyes when focusing on a close object. The brain uses the degree of convergence to judge how close or far an object is. Example of Convergence: When focusing on a pencil held very close to your eyes, your eyes will turn inward (converge) to focus on the pencil, helping you judge that it's close. Monocular Depth Cues Monocular depth cues: Definition: Depth cues that require only one eye and help judge distance or depth. Interposition: Definition: When one object partially blocks another, the blocked object is perceived as farther away. If you see a person standing in front of a tree, you perceive the Draw or explain an person as closer, and the tree as farther away, because the person example of partially obscures the tree. interposition: Relative clarity: Objects that are clearer and sharper are perceived as closer, while objects that are hazy or blurry appear farther away. Looking at a mountain range, the mountains that are closer appear Draw or explain an more detailed and sharper, while those farther away appear foggy or example of relative blurry. clarity: Relative size: Definition: If two objects are similar in size, the one that appears smaller is perceived as farther away. If two cars are the same size, but one appears smaller in the Draw or explain an distance, we perceive it to be farther away than the larger one closer example of to us. relative size: Texture gradient: Definition: A monocular depth cue that refers to the way the texture of an object or surface appears finer and less detailed as it gets farther away. Imagine a road covered with asphalt. The texture (e.g., cracks, lines) Draw or explain an appears much clearer and more distinct when you're standing close example of texture to it. As you look down the road, the texture becomes smoother and gradient: less defined, giving the impression of depth. Relative Clarity refers to how objects that are closer appear How are relative clarity sharper and clearer, while objects farther away are more blurry. & texture gradient Texture Gradient specifically refers to the visual pattern or different? texture of an object becoming smoother and less detailed as the object moves farther away, indicating depth. Linear perspective: Definition: A monocular depth cue where parallel lines appear to converge as they go farther into the distance, helping us perceive depth and distance. Looking at a set of railroad tracks, the tracks seem to meet at Draw or explain an a single point in the distance, even though they are parallel. example of linear This convergence creates the illusion of depth. perspective: Visual Perceptual Constancies Perceptual constancy: Definition: The ability to perceive objects as stable and unchanging despite variations in sensory input, such as changes in lighting or distance. Size Constancy: List and explain Definition: Objects are perceived as having a constant size, examples of even when viewed from different distances. perceptual constancy. Example: A car moving away from you may appear smaller, but you still perceive it as the same size it was when it was closer. Shape Constancy: Definition: We perceive objects as having a constant shape, even when their orientation changes. Example: A door opening may appear as a trapezoid from an  angle, but we still recognize it as a rectangular door. Color Constancy: Definition: We perceive objects as having a consistent color, even if the lighting changes. Example: A red apple appears red whether it's under bright sunlight or dim indoor lighting. Motion Perception Apparent movement: The perception of motion when none exists, often due to changing visual stimuli in rapid succession. Movie Films/Animation: List and explain The rapid succession of still images creates the illusion of examples of apparent motion. motion. This is how movies and animations work—each frame is a still image, but the sequence of frames creates the illusion of movement. Stroboscopic Effect: Example: A rotating fan blade might appear to be standing still or moving slowly in one direction when viewed under certain artificial lights that flicker at a specific rate. This is because of the flashing light being out of sync with the fan's movement.  Thinking & Problem Solving Thinking Concept: Definition: A mental category used to organize information or ideas. Concepts help us group things based on shared characteristics. Example: "Dog" is a concept that groups all breeds of dogs, regardless of size, color, or shape. Prototype: Definition: The best or most typical example of a concept. It serves as the ideal or average representation of that concept. Example: The typical "bird" prototype might be a robin—a small, flying animal with feathers and a beak. Schema: Definition: A mental framework or structure that organizes and interprets information based on past experiences. Example: A "restaurant schema" includes expectations about how to behave when dining out, like waiting to be seated and ordering food. Assimilation: Definition: The process of incorporating new information into existing schemas or concepts. Example: A child sees a cat for the first time and calls it a "dog" because they already know what dogs are like. Accommodation: Definition: The process of changing an existing schema or concept to fit new information. Example: After learning that a cat is not a dog, the child creates a new schema for "cats." Problem Solving Algorithm: Definition: A step-by-step procedure that guarantees a solution to a problem. Example: Following a recipe to bake a cake is an algorithm because each step is clearly defined, and if you follow it correctly, you will end up with the desired result. Heuristic: Definition: A mental shortcut or rule of thumb that simplifies decision-making but doesn’t guarantee a correct solution. Example: Looking in the most obvious spots for your lost keys (like your pockets or the table) is a heuristic, as it's a quick method to solve the problem but doesn't guarantee success. How would you use the following to find your lost keys on the beach or play Battleship? Algorithm Heuristic Finding keys on the beach: You could use an Finding keys on the beach: You could use a algorithm by systematically searching the entire heuristic by focusing on areas where the keys are beach in small sections, step-by-step, until you most likely to be, such as near your last known find the keys. This method ensures that you cover location or where you remember using them last. all possible areas, but it might take longer. It’s faster but might miss the keys if they’re in an Playing Battleship: You could follow a step- unexpected location. by-step strategy to systematically guess Playing Battleship: You could use a heuristic coordinates in a grid, ensuring that you cover by targeting the most likely spots for ships based every possible spot on the board to find the on previous patterns of play, like guessing near opponent's ships. edges or corners of the grid, based on previous experience. It’s quicker but doesn’t guarantee you’ll hit the ships.  Judgment & Decision-Making Judgment Representativeness heuristic: Definition: A mental shortcut in which we judge the likelihood of something based on how much it resembles a prototype or stereotype. Example: If someone is wearing glasses and reading a book, you might assume they’re a librarian rather than a truck driver, even though there are more truck drivers than librarians in the world, simply because they fit the stereotype of a librarian. Availability heuristic: o Definition: A mental shortcut where we judge the likelihood of an event based on how easily examples come to mind. o Example: After hearing about a plane crash on the news, you might overestimate the risk of flying because the incident is fresh in your memory, even though flying is statistically very safe. Decision-Making Mental set: Definition: The tendency to approach problems using a method that has worked in the past, even if a better solution exists. Example: You might always try to solve a math problem in the same way, even though there’s a quicker method available. Priming: Definition: The process by which exposure to one stimulus influences the response to a subsequent stimulus, without conscious awareness. Example: If you’re shown words related to kindness, like “helpful” and “caring,” you may be more likely to act kindly in a situation later, without even realizing it. Framing: Definition: The way information is presented or "framed" affects how it is perceived and how decisions are made. Example: A surgery with a "90% survival rate" is perceived more favorably than one with a "10% mortality rate," even though both convey the same information. Cognitive Processes Gambler’s fallacy: Definition: The belief that past events can influence future outcomes in situations where the outcomes are actually independent. Example: Believing that after flipping a coin and getting heads five times in a row, tails is "due" to happen on the next flip, even though the odds are still 50/50. Sunk-Cost fallacy: Definition: The tendency to continue investing in a decision or project based on the amount of resources already invested, rather than considering future costs and benefits. Example: Continuing to watch a movie you don’t enjoy just because you’ve already watched an hour of it, even though you could use that time for something more enjoyable. Executive function: o Definition: A set of cognitive processes that includes planning, attention, problem- solving, and self-control to achieve goals. o Example: Being able to resist the temptation of checking your phone while studying because you’re focused on your long-term goal of doing well in school.  Creativity Creativity: Definition: The ability to generate new, original ideas or solutions. Example: Coming up with an innovative way to recycle plastic materials to create something useful, like furniture or art. Divergent thinking: Convergent thinking: Definition: A thought process that generates Definition: A thought process that focuses on multiple possible answers to a question or problem. finding a single, correct solution to a problem. Example: If asked to think of ways to use a Example: Solving a math problem with a fixed, paperclip, divergent thinking might lead to ideas like clear answer using the most logical approach. using it as a bookmark, a tool to fix a zipper, or a makeshift hook. Functional fixedness: o Definition: The tendency to think of objects only in terms of their usual functions, which can limit creative problem-solving. o Example: Not thinking to use a spoon as a lever to open a tight jar lid because you usually only think of spoons for eating.  Introduction to Memory Memory: Memory is the mental process of storing, retaining, and recalling information. It involves three main stages: encoding, storage, and retrieval. Memory helps us retain experiences, skills, facts, and knowledge, allowing us to make decisions, solve problems, and learn from the past. Stages of Memory Processing Encoding: Definition: The process of converting sensory information into a form that can be stored in memory. This is the first step in forming a memory. Example: When you meet someone new, you encode their name and face into memory. Storage: Definition: The process of maintaining encoded information in memory over time. Example: After you’ve encoded a new phone number, you store it in your long-term memory for later use. Retrieval: Definition: The process of accessing stored information when needed. Example: When you need to recall your best friend’s phone number, you retrieve it from memory. Types of Information Processing Automatic Processing: Definition: The unconscious encoding of information without deliberate effort or attention. Example: You may automatically remember where you left your keys or the route you take to school every day. Effortful Processing: Definition: The intentional encoding of information that requires mental effort and attention. Example: Studying for a test involves effortful processing, as you focus on understanding and memorizing the material. What are some Space: examples of how you You can remember the layout of your room or the position of objects automatically process without actively thinking about it. For instance, you don’t have to information? focus on where your phone is placed on your desk every time; you just know. Time: You can recall the sequence of events from your day (e.g., when you brushed your teeth, had lunch, or watched TV) without trying to remember every detail consciously. Frequency: You might automatically know how many times something has happened. For example, if you’ve seen a certain person multiple times today, you might realize it without keeping track, just from the frequency of your encounters.  Effortful processing: Effortful processing requires conscious thought and mental effort. This typically happens when you're trying to learn something new or complex. Examples include: Studying for an exam (e.g., memorizing vocabulary words or historical facts). Learning a new language or new math formulas that require focused concentration and practice. Trying to memorize a phone number or a list of items. Learning something for the first time, like a new skill or When do you need to use effortful subject. processing? Trying to memorize information that doesn’t come easily, like specific dates or scientific terms. Problem-solving or making decisions that require you to think critically, such as planning or analyzing a complex situation. When we first learn something, it requires effort and focus. But with repetition and practice, the brain builds stronger neural connections, Explain how things processed effortfully may eventually be making the task easier and less mentally taxing. Over time, what once processed automatically: required effort becomes automatic, meaning we can do it without consciously thinking about it. Example: Learning to drive: At first, you consciously think about every action, but with practice, driving becomes automatic. Typing: Initially, you focus on where each key is, but over time, typing becomes a fluid, automatic action. The Multi-Store Model Attention: What factors influence whether information moves Information that captures your attention is more likely to be on to the next system store? transferred from sensory memory to short-term memory.  Without attention, information may be lost quickly. Rehearsal: Repeating information (like through maintenance rehearsal) helps it stay in short-term memory and increases the likelihood of it being encoded into long-term memory. Encoding: The depth and type of encoding (e.g., semantic encoding— understanding the meaning of information) affect how well information moves into long-term memory. Deeper processing leads to stronger memory retention. Emotional Significance: Information tied to strong emotions is more likely to be encoded into long-term memory, as emotions enhance memory processing. Meaningfulness: Information that is meaningful or personally relevant is more likely to be encoded into long-term memory. Repetition and Practice: Repeated exposure or elaborative rehearsal (linking new information to existing knowledge) makes it easier to transfer information to long-term memory. Sensory Memory Iconic: A brief visual memory that lasts for a fraction of a second. It helps us retain a snapshot of what we just saw. Example: When you look at a picture and then close your eyes, you can still "see" the image for a moment. Echoic: A brief auditory memory that lasts for a few seconds, allowing us to remember sounds or words we just heard. Example: If someone says something to you and you don’t fully hear it, you can usually recall the last few words they said a moment later. The Working Memory Model  Short-term Memory Short-term Memory (STM): Holds information temporarily for about 20-30 seconds. This is where we process and manipulate information before deciding if it should be stored in long-term memory or discarded. Working memory: A more active system than short-term memory, it involves not just storage but also manipulation and processing of information, especially in complex tasks like problem-solving and comprehension. Central executive: The "manager" of working memory that coordinates and directs attention and processing. It decides what information should be focused on and what should be ignored. Visuospatial sketchpad: Part of working memory responsible for handling visual and spatial information, like remembering the layout of a room or navigating a map. Phonological loop: Part of working memory that deals with spoken and written material. It stores and rehearses verbal information, like trying to remember a phone number by repeating it in your head. Levels of Processing Model Shallow processing: This type of processing focuses on the surface-level features of information, such as its physical appearance or the sound of the words, without considering the deeper meaning. It often involves tasks like reading something out loud or memorizing facts without connecting them to existing knowledge. Shallow processing typically leads to weaker, less durable memory retention because it doesn't involve deeply analyzing or understanding the information. Example: If you try to memorize a list of words by just repeating them over and over without thinking about their meaning or how they relate to other concepts, you're engaging in shallow processing. You'll likely forget the words quickly because you haven't created meaningful connections in your brain. Structural: This involves focusing on the physical characteristics of information, like its shape, color, or size, without considering its meaning. It’s the most superficial level of processing. Example: Looking at a word and thinking about how it looks (its font or the number of letters) rather than understanding what the word means. Phonemic: This level of processing focuses on the sound of the information, like how it sounds when you say it. You pay attention to how words are pronounced or the rhythm of the sounds but don’t consider their deeper meaning. Example: Repeating a word out loud to remember it, such as rehearsing a new phone number by focusing on how it sounds rather than its significance. Semantic: This involves focusing on the meaning of the information, which helps create stronger and more durable memories. The more deeply you understand the information, the better you'll be able to recall it later. Example: When studying vocabulary, instead of just memorizing the word's definition, you understand how it fits into sentences or relate it to your own experiences. This deeper understanding makes the word easier to remember. Deep processing: This refers to processing information by focusing on its meaning and connecting it to existing knowledge, making it more likely to be remembered in the long term. It involves thinking critically and making associations to enhance understanding. Example: If you're trying to remember a historical event, thinking about its significance, how it impacted society, and comparing it to other events helps you retain the information better. Biological Process for Memory Long-term potentiation: Definition: Long-term potentiation is a biological process in which repeated stimulation of certain neural pathways increases their strength, making the transmission of signals between neurons more efficient. This is thought to be the mechanism underlying memory formation and learning. Example: If you study for a test multiple times, the connections in your brain related to the information you're learning get stronger, making it easier to recall that information later. Types of Memories Explicit Memory Explicit memory: Definition: Explicit memory, also known as declarative memory, involves conscious recall of facts and events. This type of memory requires effortful processing to encode. Example: Remembering your first day of school or facts like "Paris is the capital of France." Semantic memory: Definition: A subset of explicit memory that stores general knowledge, facts, and concepts that are not tied to personal experiences. Example: Knowing that 2 + 2 = 4 or that Abraham Lincoln was the 16th president of the United States. Episodic memory: Definition: A type of explicit memory that involves the recall of specific events, experiences, and personal occurrences in time and place. Example: Recalling your last birthday party or a family vacation  Implicit Memory Implicit memory: Definition: Implicit memory involves unconscious recall of skills, habits, and conditioned responses, which typically do not require conscious effort. Example: Knowing how to ride a bike or tie your shoes without having to think about it consciously. Procedural memory: Definition: A type of implicit memory that involves the memory of motor skills and actions. These memories are formed after repeated practice and are performed without conscious awareness. Example: Typing on a keyboard or playing an instrument without needing to consciously think about the individual movements. Prospective Memory Prospective memory: Definition: A type of memory that involves remembering to perform planned actions or tasks in the future. Example: Remembering to take your medication at a certain time or remembering to attend a meeting later in the day. Effortful Processing: Effortful processing requires focused attention and conscious How do effortful & effort to encode information, often leading to the formation of automatic processing relate to these types of explicit memories (semantic and episodic). It involves strategies memories? like rehearsal, elaboration, and organization to move information into long-term storage. Example: Learning a new language involves effortful processing as you consciously focus on vocabulary and grammar rules. Automatic Processing: Automatic processing refers to the unconscious encoding of information, often leading to the formation of implicit memories (procedural memory and some aspects of semantic memory). It doesn't require conscious effort and often involves repetitive practice or experiences. Example: You automatically remember how to walk or ride a bike without consciously trying to remember the steps involved.  Encoding Memories Encoding: The process of taking in information and transforming it into a form that can be stored in memory. Encoding is the first step in creating a memory and involves focusing attention, organizing information, and applying strategies to make the material meaningful. Improving Encoding Mnemonic device: Definition: A strategy or technique used to enhance memory by organizing information into a memorable format. Example: Using acronyms like "HOMES" to remember the Great Lakes (Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior). Method of Loci: Definition: A strategy or technique used to enhance memory by organizing information into a memorable format. Example: Using acronyms like "HOMES" to remember the Great Lakes (Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior). Chunking: Definition: Grouping pieces of information into meaningful units to make it easier to remember. Example: Remembering a phone number as "555-123-4567" instead of individual digits. Look for patterns or categories (e.g., grouping groceries into What are some fruits, vegetables, and dairy). techniques we use when Break information into smaller sections (e.g., dividing a long we chunk information? speech into paragraphs). Relate chunks to something familiar or meaningful (e.g., birthdays or significant dates). Grouping vocabulary words for a quiz into themes like synonyms, What’s an example of antonyms, or subject-specific terms. chunking that you use? Improving Encoding Spacing effect: Definition: Information is better retained when study sessions are spaced out over time rather than crammed in one sitting. Example: Reviewing psychology notes for 20 minutes daily instead of pulling an all-nighter. Memory consolidation: Definition: The process by which memories are stabilized and stored more effectively over time, often during sleep. Massed practice: Definition: Studying or practicing intensively in one long session. Example: Cramming for a test the night before.  Distributed practice: Definition: Spreading out study or practice sessions over a longer period. Example: Reviewing a few topics each day in preparation for an exam over several weeks. If you’re using massed practice, you might study all your notes the night before a test. When it comes to AP Switching to distributed practice would involve creating a Psychology, are you using massed or distributed study schedule where you review different sections of your notes practice? daily for a week or more leading up to the test. This approach is What would it look like if generally more effective for long-term retention! you used the opposite method? Improving Encoding Serial Position Effect: Definition: The tendency to remember the first and last items in a list better than those in the middle. Primacy Effect: Refers to better recall for items at the beginning of a list because they are rehearsed more and transferred into long-term memory. Recency Effect: Refers to better recall for items at the end of a list because they are still in short-term memory when tested. Sketch out a graph depicting the serial position effect: What are the primacy and The primacy effect is the tendency to remember items at the recency effects and how beginning of a list better because they have more time to be do they relate to the serial rehearsed and transferred into long-term memory. position effect? The recency effect is the tendency to remember items at the end of a list better because they are still fresh in short-term memory. Both effects are part of the serial position effect, which shows that people recall the first and last items in a list more effectively than those in the middle. Together, they explain why memory performance forms a U-shaped curve when plotted on a graph.  To avoid the bias of remembering only the first and last flashcards: If you’re using flashcards to study, what could you Shuffle the deck regularly: This disrupts the fixed order, do to overcome the serial ensuring all cards are reviewed equally. position effect? Focus on middle items: Identify cards that frequently fall in the middle of the stack and give them extra attention. Use distributed practice: Review smaller sets of cards over multiple sessions instead of all at once. Cycle through reverse order: Occasionally start with the last card and work backward to reinforce memory of less- recalled items.  Storing Memories Storage: refers to the process of retaining information over time for later retrieval. Memories are stored in different systems based on their characteristics and duration. Comparisons of Memory Stores Capacity Duration Content Very large Very brief Immediate sensory impressions Sensory (milliseconds) (e.g., sights, sounds) Limited (~7±2 items) ~15-30 seconds Items actively held in consciousness Short-term Limited, dynamic Depends on task Manipulation and organization of Working demand short-term information Virtually unlimited Potentially lifelong Stored knowledge, skills, Long-term experiences Prolonging Storage Maintenance rehearsal: Repetition of information to keep it in short-term memory (e.g., repeating a phone number until you dial it). Elaborative rehearsal: Linking new information to existing knowledge, creating deeper understanding (e.g., associating a name with a personal story). Superior Memory Storage Highly superior autobiographical memory: The ability to recall detailed personal experiences with incredible accuracy over decades. Studying HSAM individuals reveals insights into how memory How does this anomaly systems interact and how memories are consolidated and retrieved help our understanding of differently in some people. memory? Autobiographical memory: Memory for personal life events, combining episodic (specific events) and semantic (general knowledge) memory. Memory Impairments & Limitations Anterograde amnesia: Retrograde amnesia: The inability to form new long-term memories The inability to retrieve memories from before an after an event, while past memories remain event, while the ability to form new memories intact. remains. Alzheimer’s disease: A degenerative brain disorder causing progressive memory loss, beginning with short-term memory and later impacting long-term memory and cognitive function. Infantile amnesia: The inability to recall memories from the early years of life (typically before age 3), due to undeveloped brain structures and limited language ability at that age.  Retrieving Memories Retrieval: The process of accessing stored information from memory to use it. Retrieval can depend on the cues and context available when attempting to recall or recognize information. Methods of Retrieval Recall: Retrieving information without cues, requiring deeper processing (e.g., answering an open-ended question on a test). Recognition: Identifying previously learned information when presented with it (e.g., multiple-choice questions). Enhancing Retrieval Context effects: State-dependent memory: Mood-congruent memory: Retrieval is better when the Retrieval is more successful Emotions at the time of encoding physical environment during when internal states, like can influence retrieval; we’re recall matches the one during alertness or intoxication, match more likely to recall memories encoding (e.g., studying in the between encoding and retrieval. that match our current mood same classroom where the test (e.g., recalling happy memories will be taken). when feeling happy). Retrieval Practice Processes Retrieval practice: Retrieval practice: Actively recalling information, such as through quizzes or flashcards, strengthens memory pathways and improves retention. Testing effect: Testing yourself on material enhances learning more than simply reviewing the content. Metacognition: Awareness of your learning process helps identify what you know and what needs more study, improving overall memory strategies. Testing effect: The testing effect occurs when actively retrieving information, such as through quizzes or practice tests, improves long-term memory and understanding more effectively than passive review. Example: Taking a self-quiz on psychological terms enhances retention better than rereading the textbook. Metacognition: Metacognition is thinking about your own thinking—monitoring, assessing, and adjusting how you learn or solve problems. Example: After taking a practice test, recognizing that you struggle with memory concepts and adjusting your study methods to focus more on that Active Testing: Use practice tests to reinforce what you know and How can you apply identify weak areas. these concepts to help you learn content for Self-Reflection: After studying, ask yourself, "What do I still not AP Psychology? understand?" Adjust your approach based on your answers. Targeted Practice: Combine testing and metacognition by focusing future study sessions on areas where you perform poorly in self-quizzes, ensuring more efficient learning.  Forgetting & Other Memory Challenges Forgetting: Definition: The forgetting curve, proposed by Hermann Ebbinghaus, shows how memory retention declines over time without reinforcement or rehearsal. It highlights the steep drop in recall shortly after learning and the gradual decline afterward. How to Interrupt the Forgetting Process: Use retrieval practice (e.g., quizzes) to reinforce memories. Engage in distributed practice by spacing out study sessions. Use mnemonic devices and active recall to enhance encoding and retrieval. Forgetting curve: Encoding Failure Definition: Information never makes it into long-term memory because it wasn’t properly encoded. Example: Failing to remember details of a coin because you never deeply processed them. Sketch out a graph depicting the forgetting curve: How to Interrupt the Forgetting Process: How can you interrupt the forgetting Use retrieval practice (e.g., quizzes) to reinforce memories. process? Engage in distributed practice by spacing out study sessions. Use mnemonic devices and active recall to enhance encoding and retrieval. Retrieval Difficulties Encoding failure: Definition: Information never makes it into long-term memory because it wasn’t properly encoded. Example: Failing to remember details of a coin because you never deeply processed them.  Proactive interference: Retroactive interference: Definition: Old information disrupts the recall Definition: New information interferes with the of new information. recall of old information. Example: Struggling to remember your new password because your old one keeps coming to Example: Forgetting last semester’s psychology mind. concepts because you’re focused on this semester’s material. Inadequate Retrieval Inadequate retrieval: Definition: Information is stored but can’t be accessed due to a lack of proper cues. Example: Feeling like you know an answer but being unable to recall it in the moment. Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon: Definition: The feeling of being close to remembering something but not quite retrieving it. Example: Struggling to recall a name but remembering its first letter. Psychodynamic Theory The psychodynamic The unconscious mind: Hidden thoughts, memories, and desires theory attempts to that influence behavior. understand the human Early childhood experiences: How events during early condition by focusing on development shape personality and behavior later in life. what two concepts? Repression: Definition: A defense mechanism where the mind unconsciously pushes distressing memories or thoughts out of conscious awareness to protect itself. Example: Forgetting a traumatic event from childhood but experiencing anxiety without knowing why. The Accuracy of Memories Misinformation effect: Definition: When misleading information presented after an event alters or distorts a person’s memory of the event. Example: Being told there was a red car in an accident scene, then falsely remembering seeing a red car yourself. Source amnesia: Definition: Forgetting the origin of a memory or mixing up the source of the information. Example: Remembering a fact but not recalling whether you heard it on the news, in a  conversation, or read it in a book. Constructive Memory Constructive memory: Definition: The process of building memories by combining stored information with new experiences, filling in gaps with plausible details. Example: Remembering a family dinner and imagining specific dishes that weren’t actually served. Memory consolidation: Imagination inflation: Definition: The process by which memories are Definition: Repeatedly imagining an event can stabilized and stored in long-term memory, often create false memories, making you believe it occurring during sleep. actually happened. Example: After imagining a childhood vacation multiple times, you believe you actually visited a place you’ve only seen in pictures. In the famous car crash study by Elizabeth Loftus and John Palmer (1974), participants were shown a video of a car crash and then Explain the car crash asked how fast the cars were going when they "smashed," "collided," study and the terms or "bumped." The use of different verbs led to different estimations of which apply to its speed and influenced the participants' memories of the event. findings.  Intelligence & Achievement Modern and Historical Theories These often viewed intelligence as a single, general ability. For example, Spearman’s g factor suggested intelligence could be How do historical measured by a general factor (g) affecting all cognitive tasks. theories describe intelligence? Modern theories, like Howard Gardner's Multiple Intelligence Theory, propose intelligence is a collection of different abilities, such How do modern as linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, and emotional theories describe intelligence. intelligence? Intelligence: refers to the ability to learn, understand, and apply knowledge, reason logically, solve problems, and adapt to new situations. It involves various cognitive functions such as memory, comprehension, decision-making, and critical thinking. Intelligence is commonly measured using IQ tests, though it can also be described in broader terms like emotional intelligence or multiple types of intelligence (e.g., linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial). There is debate over whether intelligence is a single entity (general intelligence) or a combination of multiple abilities. There is also controversy over whether intelligence is innate or influenced by What controversies still environment and experience. The role of culture and the fairness of exist as we try to IQ tests also remains a contentious issue. better or fully understand intelligence? g Multiple abilities The theory of general intelligence, or "g," was refer to the idea that intelligence is not a single, proposed by Charles Spearman. It suggests that unified trait but rather consists of a variety of intelligence is a single, overarching ability that distinct abilities or domains. This theory influences how well a person performs across a challenges the traditional view of intelligence, variety of cognitive tasks. Essentially, g which typically measures cognitive ability through represents a general cognitive ability that impacts IQ tests. Instead, multiple abilities suggest that both specific skills (like math or language) people may excel in different areas, and these different types of intelligence are equally important for a person’s overall functioning. Measuring Intelligence IQ (Intelligence Quotient) is calculated by dividing a person’s mental What is IQ and how age (based on cognitive testing) by their chronological age, then is it multiplying the result by 100. IQ tests are designed to measure a calculated? person’s cognitive abilities in relation to others of the same age. IQ is often used in education, employment, and research to assess How can IQ be used in cognitive abilities and predict academic and job performance. modern times? However, its use is controversial as it may not capture all aspects of intelligence. Psychometrics: The science of measuring psychological attributes like intelligence.  Standardization: The process of administering a test to a large, representative sample and establishing norms, allowing comparison of individual scores. Establishing Norms: What are some ways in which tests can be Standardized tests are given to a representative sample of standardized? people to establish norms, which are average scores for various groups (e.g., age, gender, or educational background). These norms serve as a comparison for future test-takers to determine how they score relative to others. Consistent Test Administration: To ensure fairness, the test must be administered in the same way each time. This means setting up a controlled environment where the instructions, time limits, and materials used are the same for everyone taking the test. Clear Instructions and Scoring Procedures: The instructions and scoring procedures need to be well- defined and uniform so that all test-takers are evaluated under the same conditions. This minimizes confusion and ensures that results are comparable. Test Reliability: Test-Retest Reliability: The same test is administered to the same group of people at two different points in time. High reliability means that individuals would score similarly on both occasions. Split-Half Reliability: The test is divided into two halves (e.g., odd and even-numbered questions), and the results from both halves are compared to check for consistency. Test Validity: Construct Validity: Ensuring the test truly measures what it is intended to measure (e.g., intelligence, skills). Predictive Validity: Ensuring that the test predicts future performance, such as academic achievement or job success. Test reliability: A test could give consistent results (reliable) but not measure the right construct (invalid). For example, a test that only measures memory but is labeled as measuring intelligence may be reliable but not valid.  Test-Retest Split Half This method involves administering the same This involves dividing a test into two halves (e.g., test to the same group of people at two different odd and even questions) and comparing the times to see if the results are consistent. High results. If the halves yield similar results, the test reliability means that the test scores would be is considered reliable. similar across both instances. Test validity: refers to how well a test measures what it is supposed to measure. It's a critical aspect of any assessment because a test must be valid to accurately assess the skills, traits, or knowledge it claims to measure. There are different types of test validity: Construct Predictive This refers to how well a test measures the Definition: This refers to how well the content concept it is intended to measure. For example, an of a test reflects the knowledge or skills that the intelligence test should accurately measure test is intended to measure. A test has content intelligence and not something else, like memory validity if it covers a representative sample of the or reading ability. material. Example: If a test is designed to measure Example: A math test intended to measure creativity, it must accurately assess aspects of knowledge of algebra should focus on algebraic creativity rather than unrelated factors like concepts rather than topics like geometry or personality. calculus. Reliable, but not valid Unreliable and Reliable and valid hence not valid Stereotype threat: This occurs when individuals are aware of negative stereotypes about their group and are anxious that they might confirm these stereotypes, which can negatively affect their performance on a test. For example, women may perform worse on math tests if they are reminded of the stereotype that women are not as good at math. Stereotype lift: This is the opposite of stereotype threat. It occurs when individuals are aware of positive stereotypes about their group, which can enhance their performance. For example, individuals from high-achieving cultural groups might perform better on tests if they are reminded of their group's positive reputation. Test Environment: Ensure that the test environment is neutral and How can these inequities be free from cues that may trigger stereotype threat. prevented? Focus on Individual Abilities: Encourage test-takers to focus on their individual abilities rather than group identity. Positive Framing: Provide positive reinforcement and neutral language to minimize the impact of stereotypes. Fair Testing Practices: Use tests that are unbiased and do not disproportionately benefit or harm any group  Systemic Issues in Intelligence Label the bell curve in relation to IQ scores. Flynn effect: The Flynn effect refers to the observed rise in average IQ scores over time. This phenomenon has been noted globally, with significant increases in IQ scores over the past several decades. Improved education: Greater access to education and more What might be some effective teaching methods. reasons the Flynn Better nutrition: Healthier diets contribute to cognitive effect exists? development. Technological advancements: Increased exposure to technology and complex problem-solving in everyday life. Environmental changes: Reduced exposure to toxins and better living conditions. Societal changes: A greater focus on abstract thinking and reasoning in modern culture. Within groups: Intelligence differences within a group are What differences of primarily influenced by genetic factors, individual learning intelligence are seen within groups vs. experiences, and access to resources. between groups? Between groups: Differences are often tied to environmental and systemic factors, such as socioeconomic disparities, educational opportunities, and cultural biases. These differences are not inherently genetic but reflect unequal access to supportive environments. Tests may favor individuals from certain cultural or What issue can biases cause within this area of socioeconomic backgrounds, leading to: intelligence and testing? o Misrepresentation of abilities: Scores may not reflect true intelligence but instead familiarity with the test's language or context. o Perpetuation of stereotypes: Biased tests reinforce negative stereotypes about marginalized groups. o Reduced opportunities: Incorrect assessments can limit access to education or employment. Poor nutrition: Malnourishment during childhood affects What things can brain development. negatively influence Stress and trauma: Chronic stress or adverse experiences intelligence scores? hinder cognitive performance. Educational inequalities: Lack of access to quality education or stimulating environments.  Health issues: Physical or mental health conditions that affect learning and memory. Cultural mismatch: Tests designed without considering cultural differences can disadvantage some individuals. Quantitative uses: IQ scores are used to make decisions, such How do systemic issues as school placements or job qualifications, which can relate to the quantitative disproportionately disadvantage marginalized groups if and qualitative uses of systemic biases exist. intelligence Qualitative uses: Interpretations of intelligence assessments assessments? should consider a person's background and environment to avoid overgeneralizing their potential based solely on numerical scores. Academic Achievement Measuring Academic Achievement Aptitude Achievement Measures the ability to learn or perform in a Measures what has already been learned specific area Example Example SATs, which predict college success Final exams or standardized tests like AP exams Experiencing Academic Achievement Growth mindset Fixed mindset The belief that abilities can improve through effort The belief that abilities are static and and learning unchangeable Encourages persistence, resilience, and a willingness to embrace What impact can this challenges. Leads to avoidance of challenges and fear of failure, have? hindering growth and performance Types of Studies Longitudinal Studies track the same individuals over time, revealing how intelligence evolves across the lifespan and the effects What experimental methods can be used to study of aging or experiences. intelligence? Why are these Cross-Sectional Studies compare different age groups at one types of studies helpful? point in time, providing a quick way to observe age-related differences without the time commitment of longitudinal research. Twin Studies examine identical and fraternal twins to disentangle the influences of genetics and environment on intelligence. Experimental Manipulations involve controlled changes in variables like teaching methods or environments to test their effects on intelligence, helping design effective interventions. Neuroimaging Studies use tools like fMRI to map brain activity during intelligence tasks, offering biological insights into the cognitive processes underlying intelligence. Combined, these approaches help us understand how intelligence develops, the roles of nature and nurture, effective ways to enhance cognitive abilities, and the biological mechanisms that support intelligence. They provide a comprehensive view of intelligence from developmental, environmental, and neurological perspectives.