Lesson 4 - Thinking, Intelligence, Learning & Memory PDF

Thinking, Intelligence, Learning & Memory Thinking  it means paying attention to information, representing it mentally, reasoning about it, What Is and making judgments and decisions about it. Thinking? refers to conscious, planne...

Thinking, Intelligence, Learning & Memory Thinking  it means paying attention to information, representing it mentally, reasoning about it, What Is and making judgments and decisions about it. Thinking? refers to conscious, planned attempts to make sense of and change the world.  OTTFFSSE__? What are the next two letter in the series?  CONCEPTS Elements of Cognition MENTAL IMAGES PROPOSITIONS COGNITIVE SCHEMAS CONCEPT A mental category that groups objects, relations, activities, abstractions, or qualities having common properties It helps us summarize information about the world so that it is manageable, so that we can make decisions quickly and efficiently. PROTOTYPE An especially representative example of a concept The words used to express concepts may influence or shape how we think about them. Benjamin Lee Whorf proposed that language molds cognition and perception. PROPOSITION A unit of meaning that is made up of concepts and expresses a single idea. COGNITIVE SCHEMA An integrated mental network of knowledge, beliefs, and expectations concerning a particular topic or aspect of the world. MENTAL IMAGES A mental representation that mirrors or resembles the thing it represents; mental images can occur in many and perhaps all sensory modalities. SUBCONSCIOUS PROCESS Mental processes occuring outside of conscious awareness but accessible to consciousness when necessary. How conscious is NONCONSCIOUS PROCESS Thought? Mental processes occurring outside of and not available to conscious awareness IMPLICIT LEARNING Learning that occurs when you acquire knowledge about something without being aware of how you did so and without being able to state exactly what it is you have How learned. conscious is MINDLESSNESS Thought? Mental inflexibility, inertia, and obliviousness to the present context- keeps people from recognizing when a change in the situation requires a change in behavior.  REASONING It is the purposeful mental Reasoning activity that involves operating Rationally on information in order to reach conclusions. The drawing of conclusions or inferences from observations, facts, or assumptions. PROBLEM-SOLVING Successful understanding of a problem generally requires three features: is the process of finding solutions to difficult or 1. The parts or elements of our mental representation of complex issues. the problem relate to one another in a meaningful way. Problem solving is the act 2. The elements of our mental representation of the of defining a problem; problem correspond to the elements of the problem in the outer world. determining the cause of the problem; identifying, 3. We have a storehouse of background knowledge that prioritizing, and selecting we can apply to the problem. alternatives for a solution; and implementing a solution.  EXPERTISE Experts solve problems more efficiently and rapidly than novices do. Factors that affect They know the particular area well and have a good memory for PROBLEM SOLVING the elements in the problem. They form mental images or representations that facilitate problem-solving. They relate the problem to similar problems. a. your level of expertise MENTAL SETS The tendency to respond to a new problem with the same b. whether you fall prey to approach that helped solve similar problems. a mental set Usually make the work easier, but they can mislead us when the similarity between problems in illusory. c. whether you develop insight into the problem INSIGHT in Gestalt Psychology, a sudden perception of relationships among elements of the mentally represented elements of a problem that permits its solution.  A stranger approached a museum curator and offered him an ancient bronze coin. The coin had an authentic appearance and was marked with DNSUO the date 544 B.C. The curator had happily made acquisitions from suspicious sources before, but this time he promptly called the police and had RCWDO the stranger arrested. Why? IASYD Use all the letters to form an actual word.  Systematic ALGORITHM random A systematic procedure for solving research a problem that works invariably An algorithm for when it is correctly applied. solving problems in Yield correct answers to problems which each as long as the right formula is used. possible solution is tested according to Pythagorean Theorem: a particular set of rules.  DEDUCTIVE REASONING A form of reasoning in which a conclusion follows necessarily from certain premises; if the premises Reasoning are true, the conclusion must be true. Rationally Premise Premise Conclusion True True must be True INDUCTIVE REASONING A form of reasoning in which the premises provide support for a conclusion, but it is still possible for the conclusion to be false. Premise Premise Possibility of Conclusion discrepant True True information must be True  Informal Reasoning: Heuristics and Dialectical Thinking Choose a topic below: DIALECTICAL A process in which opposing facts or ideas Should are weighed and compared with a view to marijuana be determining the best solution or to resolving legalized differences. Death penalty Pro Con should be Pro Con revoked Abortion Pro Con 8, 5, 4, 9, 1, 7, 6, 3, 2, 0 Look at the following numbers and find the rule that governs their order.  REPRESENTATIVENESS HEURISTIC A decision-making heuristic in which people make judgments about samples according to the populations they appear to represent. Barriers to Reasoning Ability AVAILABILITY HEURISTIC A heuristic in which you make a decision based on an example, information, or recent experience that is that readily available to you, even though it may not be the best HEURISTIC example to inform your decision. A rule of thumb that ANCHORING HEURISTIC suggests a course of Tendency to focus on one particular piece of action or guides problem information when making decisions or problem-solving. solving but does not guarantee an optimal AFFECT HEURISTIC solution The tendency to consult one’s emotions instead of estimating probabilities objectively.  HINDSIGHT BIAS BARRIERS TO The tendency to overestimate one’s ability to have REASONING ABILITY predicted an event once the outcome is known; the “I knew it all along” phenomenon. AVOIDING LOSS CONFIRMATION BIAS The tendency to look for or pay attention only to People try to avoid or information that confirms one’s own belief. minimize risks and losses when making decisions. FRAMING BIAS Refers to the way in which wording, or the context in FAIRNESS BIAS which information is presented, affects decision making. In some circumstances, we do not try to avoid loss OVERCONFIDENCE altogether, because we are Whether our decisions are correct or incorrect, subject to a fairness bias. most of us tend to be overconfident about them.  1. When you need to justify a choice or decision that you freely made. POSTDECISION DISSONANCE THE NEED FOR In the theory of cognitive dissonance, tension that occurs when you believe you may havemade a bad COGNITIVE decision CONSISTENCY 2. When you need to justify behavior that conflicts with your view. 3. When you need to justify a choice or decision that you freely made. COGNITIVE DISSONANCE A state of tension that occurs JUSTIFICATION OF EFFORT when a person simultaneously The tendency of individuals to increase their liking holds two cognitions that are for something that they have worked hard or psychologically inconsistent, suffered to attain; a common form of dissonance or when a person’s belief is reduction. incongruent with his or her behavior.  Sometimes, biases are a good thing. Mental biases, however, can also cause us to OVERCOMING make poor decisions. OUR COGNITIVE BIASES Most people have a ‘bias blind spot’: They acknowledge that other people have biases that distort reality, but they think that they themselves are free of bias and see the world as it really is. Intelligence INTELLIGENCE A general mental capability that involves the ability to reason, plan, solve problems, think abstractly, comprehend complex ideas, learn quickly and learn from experience. THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE GENERAL I NTELLI GENCE PRI MARY MENTAL ABI LI TI ES MULTI PLE I NTELLI GENCES THE TRI ARCHI C APPROACH TO I NTELLI GENCE General Intelligence - g factor AFTER USING FACTOR ANALYSIS TO EXAMINE MENTAL APTITUDE TESTS, CHARLES SPEARMAN CONCLUDED THAT SCORES ON THESE TESTS WERE REMARKABLY SIMILAR. PEOPLE WHO PERFORMED WELL ON ONE COGNITIVE TEST TENDED TO PERFORM WELL ON OTHER TESTS, WHILE THOSE WHO SCORED BADLY ON ONE TEST TENDED TO SCORE BADLY ON OTHERS. HE CONCLUDED THAT INTELLIGENCE IS A GENERAL COGNITIVE ABILITY THAT RESEARCHERS CAN MEASURE AND EXPRESS NUMERICALLY Primary Mental Abilities PSYCHOLOGIST LOUIS L. THURSTONE (1887–1955) FOCUSED ON SEVEN PRIMARY MENTAL ABILITIES RATHER THAN A SINGLE, GENERAL ABILITY. ASSOCIATIVE MEMORY: THE ABILITY TO MEMORIZE AND RECALL NUMERICAL ABILITY : THE ABILITY TO SOLVE MATHEMATICAL PROBLEMS PERCEPTUAL SPEED: THE ABILITY TO SEE DIFFERENCES AND SIMILARITIES AMONG OBJECTS REASONING: THE ABILITY TO FIND RULES SPATIAL VISUALIZATION: THE ABILITY TO VISUALIZE RELATIONSHIPS VERBAL COMPREHENSION: THE ABILITY TO DEFINE AND UNDERSTAND WORDS WORD FLUENCY: THE ABILITY TO PRODUCE WORDS RAPIDLY Multiple Intelligences HOWARD GARDNER PROPOSED THAT TRADITIONAL IQ TESTING DOES NOT FULLY AND ACCURATELY DEPICT A PERSON'S ABILITIES. The Triarchic Approach to Intelligence ROBERT STERNBERG DEFINED INTELLIGENCE AS "MENTAL ACTIVITY DIRECTED TOWARD PURPOSIVE ADAPTATION TO, SELECTION, AND SHAPING OF REAL-WORLD ENVIRONMENTS RELEVANT TO ONE'S LIFE." RAYMOND CATTELL CRYSTALLIZED FLUID INTELLIGENCE INTELLIGENCE EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE (EQ) THE ABILITY TO APPLY KNOWLEDGE ABOUT EMOTIONS TO EVERYDAY LIFE, INVOLVES AN AWARENESS OF AND AN ABILITY TO MANAGE ONE’S OWN EMOTIONS, SELF-MOTIVATION, EMPATHY, AND THE ABILITY TO HANDLE RELATIONSHIPS  ALFRED BINET (1857-1911) The first widely used intelligence test INTELLIGENCE was devised in 1904. TESTING Find ways on how to identify children who were slow learners so they could be given remedial work. Binet was the first to introduce the concept of mental age: a set of abilities that children of a certain age possess.  The following is a brief history of IQ tests as they were developed: Binet-Simon intelligence scale: This was the first IQ test ever made, and was developed in 1905 by Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon. Stanford-Binet IQ test: This was psychologist Lewis Terman's adaptation of the Binet-Simon test. Scores are based on a person's mental age divided by their chronological age (mental age/chronological age x 100). Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS): This was the first intelligence test for adults, developed by David Wechsler in 1939. It was the first to use standardized normal distribution in scoring and is commonly used today. It is divided into verbal and performance measures. Like most modern tests, it scores on a bell curve. INTELLIGENCE TESTING Standford-Binet Intelligence Scale Yields a score called mental age (MA) – shows the intellectual level at which a child is functioning. Also yields an intelligence quotient (IQ) – reflects the relationship between a child’s mental age and his or her actual or chronological age (CA). INTELLIGENCE TESTING WECHSLER SCALES A family of individually administered instruments for assessing the intellectual functioning of children and adults across the lifespan continuum. Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale – Fourth Edition (WAIS) Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children – Fifth Edition (WISC) Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Children – 4th Edition (WPPSI) DIFFERENCES IN INTELLECTUAL FUNCTIONING Socioeconomic and Ethnic Differences Consideration of social class Lower-class U.S. children score 10 – 15 IQ points lower than middle- and upper-class Consideration of ethnicity Impact of social class Asian Americans more likely to graduate high school and complete college DO INTELLIGENCE TESTS CONTAIN CULTURAL BIASES? Tests may measure familiarity with dominant middle-class culture: example: Caesar is to salad as______ is to brandy. a. Churchill b. Napoleon c. Hitler d. Lincoln Culture-free Intelligence Tests Cattell’s Culture-Fair Intelligence Test  CULTURE-FAIR INTELLIGENCE TEST This a non-verbal test of intelligence that requires examinees to perceive relationships in shapes and figures. Each scale has four subtests, involving different perceptual tasks, so that composite intelligence measure avoids spurious reliance on a single skill. CULTURE-FAIR INTELLIGENCE TEST GENDER DIFFERENCES IN INTELLIGENCE TESTS Intelligence tests do not show overall differences in cognitive ability Girls superior to boys in verbal ability Boys excel in visual-spatial ability Boys tend to score higher on math tests Group scores represent greater variation within the group than between the groups  DO YOU THINK OF INTELLIGENCE AS AN INHERITED OR A LEARNED CHARACTERISTIC? COMMUNICATION BY NONHUMANS Allen & Beatrix Gardner (1969)- Washoe used sign language beginning 1y.o. -181 signs by the age of 32 -For researchers to consider that Washoe had learned a sign, she had to use it spontaneously and appropriately for 14 consecutive days.  LANGUAGE A means of communicating of thoughts and feelings, using a system of socially shared but arbitrary symbols (sounds, signs, or written symbols) arranged according to rules of grammar.  PROPERTIES OF LANGUAGE SEMANTICITY: The sound (or signs) of a language have meaning. Words serve as symbols for actions, objects, relational concepts, and other ideas. INFINITE CREATIVITY: The capacity to create rather than imitate sentences. DISPLACEMENT: the quality of language in which words are used as symbols for objects, events or ideas.  PROPERTIES OF LANGUAGE LANGUAGE & COGNITION: Language is not necessary for thinking Concepts can be understood without knowing the word for the concept (e.g. roundness) LANGUAGE & CULTURE: Different languages have different words for the same concepts, and concepts do not necessarily overlap.  LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT PRELINGUISTIC VOCALIZATIONS Crying, cooing, babbling All children babble the same sounds (even deaf children) First word is spoken about 1 year HOLOPHRASE Single words that express complex meanings “Cookie” means “this is cookie” “I want cookie” “where is cookie?”  LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT TELEGRAPHIC SPEECH (2 YEARS) Two-word sentences Grammatically correct Sequence of emergence of various two-word sentences is universal OVERREGULATION Application of regular grammatical rules to irregular verbs and nouns LINGUISTIC-RELATIVITY HYPOTHESIS The view that language structures the way we view the world. According to Whorf (1956), the categories and relationships we use to understand the world are derived from our language.  LEARNING THEORY Usually refer to the concepts of imitation and reinforcement. From a social cognitive perspective, parents serve as models.  PSYCHOLINGUISTIC THEORY The view that language acquisition involves the interaction of environmental influences – such as exposure to parental speech and reinforcement – and the inborn tendency to acquire language. Learning Learning is? A change in behavior as a result of experience or practice. The process of gaining knowledge. A process by which behavior is changed, shaped, or controlled.  The Learning Process 1. Perceiving 3. Acting Input Output Learner perceives or Move or movement develops and idea of what has to be done. 2. Deciding 4. Deciding Process in the brain Asked to practice How do we put the info in a further, cycle starts response again Behaviorism is a theory of animal and human learning that only focuses on objectively observable behaviors and discounts mental activities. Watson’s work was based on the experiment of Ivan Pavlov, who had studied animals’ response to conditioning Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning It is a learning process A learning process in which likelyhood that occurs through the of a specific behavior is increased or association between decreased through positive or environmental stimulus negative reinforcement each time and a naturally occurring the behavior is exhibited, so that the stimulus subject comes to associate the pleasure or displeasure of the reinforcement with the behavior. Rewards cause an increase in behavior, while punishment decrease the behavior  Aspects in Classical Conditioning: Unconditioned Stimulus A stimulus that naturally causes a particular response Unconditioned Response is an unlearned response that occurs naturally in reaction to the unconditioned stimulus Conditioned Stimulus Is a previously neutral stimulus that, after being associated with the unconditioned stimulus, eventually comes to trigger a condition response Neutral Stimulus This stimulus does not naturally cause the subject to respond in a certain way The Little Albert Experiment by John B. Watson demonstrated that classical conditioning—the association of a particular stimulus or behavior with an unrelated stimulus or behavior—works in human beings  Aspects in Operant Conditioning: Positive Reinforcement Positive reinforcement strengthens a behavior by providing a consequence an individual finds rewarding. Negative Reinforcement The removal of an unpleasant reinforcement can also strengthen behavior. This is known as negative reinforcement because it is the removal of an adverse stimulus which is ‘rewarding’ to the animal or person. Negative reinforcement strengthens behavior because it stops or removes an pleasant experience. Positive Punishment something is “added” to the mix that makes the behavior less likely to continue or reoccur Negative Punishment something is “taken away” from the mix that makes the behavior less likely to continue or reoccur A Skinner box, also known an operant conditioning chamber, is an enclosed apparatus that contains a bar or key that an animal can press or manipulate in order to obtain food or water as a type of reinforcement.  SHAPING The gradual process of rewarding successful approximation of a skill in working toward an end goal. a conditioning technique that involves working toward a target behavior by breaking it down into gradual, successive steps and rewarding each step on the path toward the desired outcome. For example, when a person or an animal engages in a behavior similar to the behavior you are trying to teach, you would reward it, even though it’s not exactly right. As the behavior is repeated, you reward steps that bring them closer and closer to the final goal. Memory  EXERCISE What is the date today? When did you graduate from primary school? (exact date) What is your best friend’s middle name? MEMORY As a process, memory refers to the dynamic mechanisms associated with storing, retaining, and retrieving information about past experience. Operations of Memory 1. Encoding – transform sensory data into a form of mental representation. 2. Storage – keep encoded information in memory. 3. Retrieval – pull out or use information stored in memory.  Tasks Used for Measuring Memory 1. Recall – a person produce a fact, a word or other item from memory (fill-in the blanks & essays). a. Serial recall – recall items in exact order. b. Free recall – recall items in any order. c. Cued recall (paired-associates recall) – in which, you are first shown items in pairs, but during recall you are cued with only one member of each pair and are asked to recall each mate. 2. Recognition – a person select or otherwise identify an item being one that you learned previously (multiple choice & true- false). Types of Tasks Used for Measuring Memory (Expressive Knowledge) Who wrote Hamlet? Explicit memory is also known as declarative memory since you can consciously recall and explain the information. Types of Tasks Used for Measuring Memory (Expressive Knowledge) Types of Tasks Used for Measuring Memory What word can you think thru the following… _ot_n_i_l haept  Types of Tasks Used for Measuring Memory Implicit memory, also known as unconscious memory or automatic memory, refers to perceptional and emotional unconscious memories which influence our behavior 2 STRUCTURES OF MEMORY Primary memory – which holds temporary information currently in use. Secondary memory – which holds information permanently or at least for a very long time.  ATKINSON-SHRIFFIN MODEL Sensory memory – capable of storing relatively limited amounts of information for very brief periods (milliseconds to 5 seconds). Short-term memory – capable of storing information for somewhat longer periods but also of relatively limited capacity (30 seconds to 2 minutes or even several hours, can hold about 7 to 9 items). Long-term memory – capable of storing information, of very large capacity, for very long periods (can be indefinitely).  ATKINSON-SHRIFFIN MODEL Sensory memory – capable of storing relatively limited amounts of information for very brief periods (milliseconds to 5 seconds). Short-term memory – capable of storing information for somewhat longer periods but also of relatively limited capacity (30 seconds to 2 minutes or even several hours, can hold about 7 to 9 items). Long-term memory – capable of storing information, of very large capacity, for very long periods (can be indefinitely). HBST AZMG 5 7 0 9 2 4 6 11 3 ELWC RUNP  LEVELS OF PROCESSING FRAMEWORK Postulates that memory does not comprise three or even any specific number of separate stores but rather varies along a continuous dimension in terms of depth of encoding. The deeper level of processing, the higher the probability that an item may be retrieved. THREE LEVELS OF PROCESSING  TWO KINDS OF EXPLICIT MEMORY SEMANTIC MEMORY stores general knowledge. EPISODIC MEMORY stores personally experienced events or episodes  OUTSTANDING MEMORY MNEMONIST someone who demonstrates extraordinary keen memory ability, usually by using special memory techniques for memory enhancement. SYNESTHESIA is the experience of sensations in a sensory modality different from the sense that has been physically stimulated.  DEFICIENT MEMORY AMNESIA is severe loss of explicit memory. RETROGRADE AMNESIA when someone sustains a concussion, events immediately prior to the concussive episode are not well remembered. The memories that return typically do so starting from the more distant past. They then progressively return up to the time of the trauma.  DEFICIENT MEMORY INFANTILE AMNESIA the inability to recall events that happened when we were very young. Generally, we can remember little or nothing that has happened to us before the age of about 5 years. ANTEROGRADE AMNESIA the inability to remember events that occur after a traumatic event; lost the ability to recollect any new memories.  DEFICIENT MEMORY SELECTIVE AMNESIA loss of memory regarding certain issues, events, and individuals which is too wide ranging to be accounted for by typical forgetfulness. ALZHEIMER‘S DISEASE is a disease of older adults that causes dementia as well as progressive memory loss. DEMENTIA is a loss of intellectual function that is severe enough to impair one’s everyday life.  BRAIN STRUCTURES RESPONSIBLE FOR MEMORY Cerebral Cortex - involved in short-term and long-term memory. Prefrontal Cortex - is responsible for short-lived sensory memory. Hippocampus - takes some short-term memories from the cortex, turns them into long-term memories, and transfers them back to the cortex, where they are stored.  MEMORY PROCESS Sensory memory – the information stored in sensory memory is very short-lived. It allows us to move around in our surroundings without accident. We notice and remember possible obstacles ---usually without thinking about it--- and then, forget about them.  MEMORY PROCESS Long-term memory –stored facts, such as faces, words, dates, and skills. These memories may be stored because they are significant, or because they have been rehearsed or repeated. Short-term memory – can last for a few seconds to several hours. We might use it to look up a telephone number, remember it long enough to dial it, and then forget it. Much of the information stored in short-term memory is lost, but some of it ---if reused, rehearsed, or associated with old memories--- may be transferred to long- term memory. FACTORS THAT MAY AFFECT INFORMATION STORAGE Encoding Attention Rehearsal Interference  ENCODING Visual encoding – visual cues or representations Acoustic encoding – sound cues Semantic encoding – based on word meaning Consolidation – the process of integrating new information into stored information. ATTENTION-RETENTION Selective attention Presence of distractors  REHEARSAL Overt – aloud and obvious to anyone watching Covert – silent and hidden Distributed practice – learning in which various sessions are spaced over time Massed practice – learning in which sessions are crammed together in a very short space of time Elaborative rehearsal – makes the item meaningful by connecting it to other previous learnings Maintenance rehearsal – repetitiously rehearses the items  MNEMONIC DEVICES Categorical Clustering – Organize a list of items into a set of categories Interactive Images – Create interactive images that link the isolated words in a list Pegword system – utilized by creating mental associations between items to be remembered and items that are already associated with numbers  MNEMONIC DEVICES Method of loci – Visualize walking around an area with distinctive landmarks that you know well, and then link the various landmarks to specific items to be remembered Acronym – Devise a word or expression in which each of its letters stands for a certain other word or concept  MNEMONIC DEVICES Keyword System – Form an interactive image that links the sound and meaning of a foreign word with the sound and meaning of the familiar word Acrostic – Form a sentence rather than a single word to help you remember the new words  FORGETTING Loss of retention, extinction of what has been learned or the failure to be able to retrieve previously learned material. PROCESS OF FORGETTING Interference – occurs when competing information causes us to forget something. Interference theory – view that forgetting occurs because recall of certain words interferes with recall of other words (replacement of memory trace). PROCESS OF FORGETTING Retroactive interference – is caused by activity occurring after we learn something but before we are asked to recall that thing. Proactive interference – occurs when the interfering material occurs before, rather than after, learning of the to-be-remembered material.