Psychology Memory and Perception Concepts Quiz

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Questions and Answers

What can influence perception according to psychological concepts?

Only past experiences

Only sensory input

Both internal and external factors (correct)

Only environmental context

Which best describes the role of visual perceptual processes?

They operate independently of our attention

They are exclusively based on memory recall

They often lead to incorrect interpretations of stimuli (correct)

They always produce accurate interpretations

What is one reason why memories may not reflect our experiences accurately?

They can be influenced by various internal and external factors (correct)

Memories are stored accurately by the brain

Memories are only triggered by external cues

Memories are recorded in real-time without error

Which process is involved in getting information into memory?

Encoding information Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a stage in memory processing?

Analysis Signup and view all the answers

In memory storage, which best defines how information is retained?

Information is stored in a fluid and adaptable manner Signup and view all the answers

What is a possible cause of memory failure?

Improper encoding Signup and view all the answers

How do modern and historical theories relate to intelligence?

They offer differing perspectives on understanding intelligence Signup and view all the answers

What allows tasks that were initially effortful to become automatic over time?

Repetition and practice Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary factor that influences whether information moves from sensory memory to short-term memory?

Attention Signup and view all the answers

Which type of encoding is associated with understanding the meaning of information?

Semantic encoding Signup and view all the answers

What is the result of maintenance rehearsal in memory processing?

Retention in short-term memory Signup and view all the answers

How does emotional significance affect memory retention?

It enhances memory processing Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a good example of an effortful processing task that becomes automatic over time?

Typing without looking at the keyboard Signup and view all the answers

What effect does deeper processing have on memory retention?

It enhances memory retention Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the process of automaticity in learning a new skill?

Allows the skill to be performed without conscious thought Signup and view all the answers

What can be done to overcome the serial position effect when studying with flashcards?

Shuffle the deck regularly Signup and view all the answers

What is the capacity of short-term memory?

Limited (~7±2 items) Signup and view all the answers

Which type of rehearsal involves linking new information to existing knowledge?

Elaborative rehearsal Signup and view all the answers

What is the duration of information held in short-term memory?

~15-30 seconds Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary characteristic of long-term memory?

Virtually unlimited storage Signup and view all the answers

What is maintenance rehearsal primarily used for?

Retaining information in short-term memory Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic of very brief sensory memory?

Duration is measured in milliseconds Signup and view all the answers

Highly superior autobiographical memory is characterized by which ability?

To recall detailed personal experiences with great accuracy Signup and view all the answers

What is inattentional blindness?

Missing details because of focused attention. Signup and view all the answers

What does change blindness demonstrate about our perception?

Gradual changes can go unnoticed when distracted. Signup and view all the answers

What does the Gestalt principle of proximity indicate?

Objects that are close together are grouped as part of the same collection. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the principle of closure?

Completing incomplete images mentally. Signup and view all the answers

What do we understand from the Gestalt principle of similarity?

Objects that resemble each other are grouped mentally. Signup and view all the answers

How does inattentional blindness affect our daily observations?

It can lead us to ignore important stimuli. Signup and view all the answers

Which example best illustrates change blindness?

Missing a change in a friend's shirt color after a distraction. Signup and view all the answers

What aspect of perception does the Gestalt principle highlight?

The tendency to see patterns and wholes rather than isolated parts. Signup and view all the answers

What does test reliability refer to?

The consistency of test results across different instances. Signup and view all the answers

Which method involves administering a test to the same group at two different times?

Test-Retest method Signup and view all the answers

What type of validity assesses how well a test measures the construct it is intended to measure?

Construct Validity Signup and view all the answers

What can occur when individuals are aware of negative stereotypes about their group?

Stereotype threat Signup and view all the answers

What does content validity measure?

The accuracy of test questions in relation to the subject matter. Signup and view all the answers

Which is an example of a situation that could lead to stereotype threat?

A reminder of negative stereotypes about women and math. Signup and view all the answers

What is the opposite of stereotype threat?

Stereotype lift Signup and view all the answers

If a test is consistently reliable but measures unrelated skills, it is considered:

Reliable but not valid Signup and view all the answers

What is constructive memory?

A way of building memories by combining existing information with new experiences. Signup and view all the answers

What occurs during memory consolidation?

Memories are stabilized and stored in long-term memory. Signup and view all the answers

What does imagination inflation refer to?

The creation of false memories by repeatedly imagining events. Signup and view all the answers

What was the main finding of the car crash study by Loftus and Palmer?

The word choice used in questioning influenced speed estimates. Signup and view all the answers

How do historical theories generally view intelligence?

As a single, general ability affecting all cognitive tasks. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes modern theories of intelligence?

Intelligence consists of distinct abilities, such as emotional and linguistic intelligence. Signup and view all the answers

Which of these is NOT considered a cognitive function related to intelligence?

Physical strength. Signup and view all the answers

What is the definition of intelligence?

The capacity to learn, understand, and apply knowledge effectively. Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Unit 2: Cognition

Essential questions include: Can you always trust your senses? Why don't people always make good decisions? What strategies are used to help remember things? Why aren't memories exactly like experiences?

Learning Objectives and Topics

2.1 Perception: Explains internal and external factors influencing perception, and visual perceptual processes. (pages 166-184)
2.2 Thinking, Problem-Solving, Judgments, and Decision-Making: Discusses psychological concepts and theories behind thinking, problem-solving, judgment, and decision-making. (pages 187-202, 233)
2.3 Introduction to Memory: Explains memory types, structures, and processes. (pages 206-212, 215-216, 222, 227, 229, 232)
2.4 Encoding Memories: Explains encoding processes for storing information in memory. (pages 215-223)
2.5 Storing Memories: Explains memory storage processes. (pages 226-229)
2.6 Retrieving Memories: Explains memory retrieval processes. (pages 207-208, 232-235)
2.7 Forgetting and Other Memory Challenges: Discusses reasons for memory failure and errors. (pages 238-250)
2.8 Intelligence and Achievement: Explains modern and historical theories describing intelligence, how intelligence is measured, and systemic issues related to intelligence assessments. (pages 254-285)

Perception: Internal and External Factors

Cognition: Mental processes for gaining understanding. Examples include thinking, learning, memory, problem-solving, decision-making, and language.
Sensation: Detecting and receiving physical stimuli from the environment.
Perception: Organizing and interpreting sensory information for meaning.
Top-down processing: Perception guided by prior knowledge, expectations, and experiences. Example: Reading messy handwriting by guessing the words.
Bottom-up processing: Perception starting with sensory input and building meaning. Example: Identifying a new shape for the first time.
Schema: Mental frameworks that organize information. Example: A schema for "dog" might include four legs, a tail, and barking.
Perceptual set: Predisposition to perceive something in a specific way due to prior experiences or expectations. Example: If told to look for a UFO, you might interpret a strange light differently.
External factors: Contexts, experiences, and cultural backgrounds can influence perception.

Attention

Selective attention: Focusing on one specific task/stimulus while ignoring distractions. Example: At a party, focusing on a conversation while ignoring background noise.
Divided attention: Focusing on multiple tasks/stimuli simultaneously. Example: Texting while walking or listening to music while studying.
Inattentional blindness: Failing to notice something in plain sight due to focused attention elsewhere. Example: Not noticing someone dressed as a gorilla while focusing on basketball passes.
Change blindness: Failing to notice changes in a scene or environment, especially when subtle. Example: Not noticing someone changing shirts in a video.

Gestalt Principles

Gestalt: Perceiving objects and scenes as whole, organized patterns instead of individual parts. Example: Seeing a circle of dots as a circle rather than individual dots.

Figure-Ground Perception

Figure-ground: Perceiving a figure against a background. Example: Perceive a white vase against a black background, or imagine two faces.

Depth Perception

Depth perception: Ability to perceive the world in three dimensions and judge distances. Example: Catching a ball by judging its distance.
Binocular depth cues (retinal disparity, convergence): Depth cues requiring both eyes.
Retinal disparity: Slight differences in images seen by each eye, helping calculate depth.
Convergence: Inward movement of both eyes when focusing on a close object, aiding in depth judgment. Example: Focusing on a pencil held close, eyes converge.
Monocular depth cues (interposition, relative clarity, relative size, texture gradient, linear perspective): Depth cues achievable with one eye.
Interposition: One object obscuring another, suggesting depth. Example: A person obscuring a tree, indicating person is closer.

Visual Perceptual Constancies

Size constancy: Objects are perceived as the same size, regardless of distance. Example: A car moving further away, but appearing the same size (conceptually).
Shape constancy: Objects are perceived as the same shape, despite changes in viewing angle. Example: A door opening might appear trapezoidal from an angle, but recognized as a rectangle.
Color constancy: Objects are perceived as having the same color, despite changes in lighting conditions. Example: A red apple still appears red, regardless of illumination changes.

Motion Perception

Apparent movement: Perception of motion when no actual motion exists, such as in movies or animations. Example: Animated character movement perceived.
Stroboscopic effect: Perception of movement due to rapid succession of still images. Example: Rotating fan blades, appearing stationary.

Thinking and Problem Solving

Concepts: Mental categories for organizing information. Example: "Dog" groups various dog breeds.
Prototype: Most typical example of a concept. Example: A robin (in the prototype "bird" ).
Schema: Frameworks for organizing information based on past experiences. Example: Restaurant schema includes expectations about waiting, ordering, and dining out.
Assimilation: Integrating new information into existing schemas. Example: Calling a cat a "dog," incorporating the new information into pre-existing knowledge..
Accommodation: Adjusting existing schemas as relevant new information emerges. Example: Realizing the cat is not a dog, changing the existing knowledge scheme.
Algorithm: Step-by-step procedure to solve a problem, always resulting in a solution. Example: Following a recipe to bake a cake.
Heuristic: Mental shortcut to solve problems, not guaranteed to yield a solution. Example: Searching for keys in obvious locations (e.g., pockets).
Representativeness heuristic: Judging likelihood based on prototypes or stereotypes. Example: Assuming a person wearing glasses and reading is a librarian rather than a truck driver.
Availability heuristic: Judging likelihood based upon how easily examples come to mind. Example:Overestimating the risk of flying after a plane crash is reported.
Mental set: Tendency to approach problems using methods that worked previously. Example: Solving math problems in the same way each time.
Priming: One stimulus affecting subsequent stimulus. Example: Showing "helpful" words priming kind behaviour response.
Framing: Presentation of information influencing decision-making. Example: "90% survival rate" versus "10% mortality rate".

Creativity

Divergent thinking: Generates multiple solutions to a problem. Example: Multiple uses for a paperclip.
Convergent thinking: Finds a single correct answer to a question. Example: Solving a math equation.
Functional fixedness: Tendency to think of objects only in terms of their typical functions. Example: Failing to recognize spoons can be a lever.

Memory

Encoding: Converting sensory information into a form usable by the memory system. Example: Encoding someone's name.
Storage: Maintaining encoded information over time. Example: Remembering a phone number.
Retrieval: Accessing stored information when needed Example: Recalling a phone number.
Sensory memory: Initial stage of memory processing, brief storage/encoding. Example: Iconic (visual) and echoic (auditory) traces.
Short-term memory:(STM): Limited capacity store; holds information briefly Example: Remembering a phone number for dialing.
Working memory: Temporary storage actively processing information Example: Using information while solving a math problem.
Long-term memory (LTM): Large-capacity, relatively permanent storage for information Example: Remembering names and faces.
Explicit memory: Consciously retrieved memories Example: Remembering a fact or event..
Semantic memory: General knowledge about facts. Example: Knowing pi or Washington D.C. is the capital.
Episodic memory: Personal experiences or events. Example: Remembering your first day of school.
Implicit memory: Unconscious memories involving skills or procedures. Example: Knowing how to ride a bike.
Procedural memory: Motor skills and actions, automatic. Example: Typing on a keyboard.
Prospective memory: Remembering to perform actions in the future. Example: Remembering to pick up groceries.
Memory consolidation: Stabilizing memories for long-term storage. Example: Memories strengthen during sleep.
Encoding Failure: Information never properly registered Example: Failing to remember details from a coin toss.
Retrieval Failure: Information stored but difficult or impossible to recall. Example: Forgetting a friend's name despite knowing you know it.
Proactive Interference: Older learning interferes with new learning, Example; Remembering old passwords, messing up new ones.
Retroactive Interference: New learning interferes with old learning Example: Forgetting a previous phone number when you get a new one.
Inadequate Retrieval: Proper retrieval cues are insufficient, Memory still exists but the cues aren't enough. Example: Feeling you know the word but can't recall it.
Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon: Knowing you know something, but can't quite get it. Example: Feeling that the name is on the tip of your tongue.
Repression: Pushing unpleasant memories out of conscious awareness. Example: Forgetting a traumatic event.
Misinformation effect: Incorrect or misleading information distorts memories, Example: Falsely remembering something you weren't there for.
Source amnesia: Remembering a fact, but not knowing where you obtained it Example: Remembering a fact but not knowing how you heard it.
Flashbulb Memories: Vivid, detailed memories of surprising or emotionally significant events. Example: Remembering where you were on 9/11.
Constructive memory: Building memories by combining stored information with new experiences, Example: Remembering a dinner party and inserting dishes that weren't served, based on similar previous experiences.
Imagination inflation: Repeatedly imagining an event can lead to false memories. Example: You might "remember" something from childhood you only imagined.
Levels of processing: Deeper processing leads to better memory, Example: Focusing on meaning instead of just words.

Improving Encoding

Mnemonic devices: Techniques for enhancing memory, Example: Acronyms, method of loci.
Chunking: Grouping information into meaningful units, Example: Breaking a phone number into smaller units.
Spacing effect: Spreading out study sessions, Example: Studying for an exam over multiple days rather than cramming.
Serial position effect: Remembering items at the beginning and end of a list better than those in the middle, Example: Remembering first and last names on a list.

Memory Storage

Maintenance rehearsal: Repeating information to keep it in short-term memory, Example; Repeating a person's name to remember it.
Elaborative rehearsal: Linking new information to existing knowledge, Example: Connecting a person to a previous memory..

Memory Retrieval

Retrieval practice: Actively retrieving information. Example: Using quizzes or flashcards for review.
Testing effect: Testing improves memory retention more than just studying. Example: Students performing better on tests after reviewing notes.
Context effects: Retrieval is better when the situation/environment is the same as when the information was encoded. Example; Studying in a similar environment during tests.
State-dependent memory: Internal state during encoding influences retrieval. Example; Feeling anxious at encoding and feeling anxious to recall information.
Mood-congruent memory: Emotions during encoding influence recall. Example; Remembering positive memories when happy.

Intelligence and Achievement

Intelligence: Ability to learn, understand, apply knowledge, reason logically, solve problems, and adapt to new situations.
Psychometrics: Science of measuring psychological attributes like intelligence, example: I.Q. tests.
Standardization (norming): Establishing norms (average scores) by administering tests to large, representative samples, Example: Standardizing an intelligence test..
Reliability (test-retest, split-half): Consistency of test scores, Example: Similar results on different applications of the same test..
Validity (construct, predictive): Accuracy/extent to which tests measure what they are intended to measure, Example: Construct validity of a creativity test compared to personality..
Stereotype threat: Performance anxiety stemming from awareness of negative stereotypes regarding one's group. Example; Women performing worse in maths if this is presented.
Systemic issues: Social and cultural factors affecting intelligence tests, Example; Educational disadvantages influencing performance..
Flynn effect: Rise in average IQ scores over time, Example; Scores incrementally increasing over a period of time.

Measuring Academic Achievement

Aptitude: Measures potential in a certain subject, Example: SAT and similar intelligence tests are examples of Aptitude.
Achievement: Measures prior learning, Example; Grades and Exam scores.

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Description

Test your knowledge on psychological concepts related to memory and perception. This quiz explores various factors influencing perception, memory processing stages, and the relationship between emotions and memory retention. Ideal for psychology students looking to deepen their understanding of these vital topics.