Anatomy and Physiology Study Guide 2023-2024 PDF

Anatomy and Physiology Semester 1 Study Guide Ms Catherine Ms Mona 2023-2024 Section A- What You Need to Know Section B- Practice to Prepare Section A  The following material includes material that has been...

Anatomy and Physiology Semester 1 Study Guide Ms Catherine Ms Mona 2023-2024 Section A- What You Need to Know Section B- Practice to Prepare Section A  The following material includes material that has been taught in semester 1 and will be assessed. Unit 1 Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology (anatomical terminology). learning outcomes: 1 Explain the importance of anatomical position and terminology. 2 Use terminology in relation to the position of anatomical parts. 3 Correctly refer to the location of body parts, using anterior, posterior, superior, inferior, lateral, distal, proximal, medial, superficial. 4 Identify and use the correct terminology used to divide the body into planes. 5 Explain the use of anatomical terminology and planes and their importance in diagnostic testing and imaging. Key vocabulary Superior A directional term meaning "above" or "toward the head." Inferior A directional term meaning "below" or "toward the feet." Anterior (Ventral) A directional term meaning "toward the front" of the body. Posterior (Dorsal) A directional term meaning "toward the back" of the body. Medial A directional term meaning "closer to the midline of the body." Lateral A directional term meaning "farther from the midline of the body." Proximal A directional term meaning "closer to the point of attachment" of a limb to the trunk. Distal A directional term meaning "farther from the point of attachment" of a limb to the trunk. Sagittal Plane A vertical plane that divides the body into left and right sections. Frontal Plane (Coronal Plane) A vertical plane that divides the body into anterior (front) and posterior (back) sections. Transverse Plane A horizontal plane that divides the body into superior (upper) and inferior (lower) sections. Anatomical Position The standard reference position used in anatomy. In this position: The body is upright. The feet are slightly apart and flat on the ground. The head is level, and the eyes face forward. The arms are at the sides with palms facing forward, and the thumbs point away from the body. Unit 2 Cells learning outcomes: 1 Describe a generalized cell, identifying and describing the cell organelles. 2 Recognize the features of a generalized cell in light and electron micrographs. 3 Recognize the hierarchy of organization in multicellular organisms (including humans). 4 Appreciate the cooperation between cells, tissues, organs and organ systems in the structure and function of the human body. 5 With reference to specific examples, explain what is meant by specialized cells Key vocabulary Cell The basic structural and functional unit of life. All living organisms are made up of cells. Tissue A group of similar cells that work together to perform a specific function. Examples include epithelial tissue, connective tissue, muscle tissue, and nervous tissue. Organ A structure made up of multiple types of tissues that perform a specific function. Examples include the heart, lungs, and liver. Organ System A group of organs that work together to perform complex body functions. Examples include the digestive system, respiratory system, and nervous system. Cell organelles 1. Nucleus Function: o Acts as the control center of the cell. o Contains the cell’s DNA, which regulates gene expression and guides cell activities like growth, metabolism, and reproduction. 2. Ribosomes Function: o Synthesize proteins by translating messenger RNA (mRNA) into amino acid chains. o Can be free-floating in the cytoplasm or attached to the rough endoplasmic reticulum. 3. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) Rough ER: o Studded with ribosomes. o Synthesizes and modifies proteins to be transported to other parts of the cell or outside the cell.  Smooth ER: o Lacks ribosomes. o Synthesizes lipids, metabolizes carbohydrates, and detoxifies harmful substances. 4. Golgi Apparatus Function: o Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids into vesicles for transport within the cell or secretion outside the cell. 5. Lysosomes Function: o Contain digestive enzymes that break down cellular waste, damaged organelles, and foreign substances. 6. Mitochondria Function: o Generate ATP (energy) through cellular respiration by breaking down glucose and oxygen. o Often called the “powerhouse” of the cell. 7. Plasma Membrane (Cell Membrane) Function: o Acts as a selectively permeable barrier that controls the entry and exit of substances. o Maintains homeostasis and allows cell communication. 8. Cytoplasm Function: o The jelly-like substance that fills the cell and suspends the organelles. o Provides a medium for chemical reactions to occur. 9. Cytoskeleton Function: o A network of protein filaments (microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments).  o Provides structural support, aids in cell shape, and facilitates cell movement and intracellular transport. 10. Peroxisomes Function: o Contain enzymes that break down fatty acids and detoxify harmful substances like hydrogen peroxide. 11. Centrioles Function: o Help organize microtubules during cell division. o Play a role in forming the spindle apparatus during mitosis. 12. Vesicles Function: o Small membrane-bound sacs that transport materials within the cell and to the cell surface for secretion. Unit 3 Tissues learning outcomes: 1 With reference to specific examples, explain how cells are organized into tissues. 2 Recognise structural and functional diversity in the cells that make up human tissues. 3 Recognise the characteristic features and functional roles of the four main tissue types in humans. Key vocabulary Tissue A group of similar cells and their extracellular matrix that work together to perform a specific function. Histology The study of tissues and their structure under a microscope. Epithelial Tissue A type of tissue that covers the body's surfaces, lines cavities, and forms glands. It serves roles in protection, secretion, absorption, and filtration. Examples: Skin, lining of the digestive tract, glands. Connective Tissue A tissue type that supports, protects, and binds other tissues. It has a diverse structure and includes cells, fibers, and extracellular matrix. Examples: Bone, blood, cartilage, adipose (fat). Muscle Tissue A type of tissue specialized for contraction to produce movement. Types: 1. Skeletal muscle (voluntary, attached to bones) 2. Cardiac muscle (involuntary, found in the heart) 3. Smooth muscle (involuntary, found in walls of hollow organs). Nervous Tissue A type of tissue that transmits electrical signals throughout the body. It is involved in sensory input, integration, and motor output. Examples: Brain, spinal cord, nerves. Extracellular Matrix (ECM) The non-living material surrounding cells in connective tissue. It includes proteins (like collagen and elastin) and ground substance, providing support and structure. Collagen Fibers Strong, flexible protein fibers found in connective tissue, providing tensile strength. Elastic Fibers Stretchy fibers in connective tissue that allow for elasticity and resilience. Found in tissues like the skin and blood vessel walls. Reticular Fibers Thin, branching fibers that form a supportive network in soft tissues like lymph nodes and the spleen. Simple Epithelium A single layer of epithelial cells, often involved in absorption, secretion, or filtration. Example: Simple squamous epithelium in the lungs. Stratified Epithelium Multiple layers of epithelial cells, providing protection against abrasion. Example: Stratified squamous epithelium in the skin. Glandular Epithelium Specialized epithelial cells that form glands and secrete substances. Types: 1. Exocrine glands (secrete substances like sweat and saliva through ducts). 2. Endocrine glands (secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream). Adipose Tissue A type of connective tissue that stores fat, providing insulation, cushioning, and energy storage. Cartilage A flexible connective tissue that provides support and cushioning. It lacks blood supply. Types: 1. Hyaline cartilage (found in joints). 2. Elastic cartilage (found in the ear). 3. Fibrocartilage (found in intervertebral discs). Bone (Osseous Tissue) A hard connective tissue that supports and protects the body, stores minerals, and produces blood cells. Blood A fluid connective tissue that transports nutrients, gases, and waste products. Membranes Thin layers of tissue that cover surfaces, line cavities, or separate structures. Types: 1. Mucous membranes: Line cavities open to the exterior (e.g., digestive tract). 2. Serous membranes: Line closed cavities and cover organs (e.g., pleura around lungs). 3. Cutaneous membrane: The skin. 4. Synovial membranes: Line joint cavities. Regeneration The process by which damaged tissue is replaced by the same type of cells, restoring full function. Fibrosis The replacement of damaged tissue with scar tissue, which does not restore full function. Apical Surface The free, exposed surface of an epithelial cell that faces the body surface or internal cavity. Basal Surface The side of epithelial cells attached to the basement membrane, anchoring them to underlying connective tissue. Basement Membrane A thin layer of extracellular material that supports epithelial tissue and separates it from underlying connective tissue. Goblet Cell A specialized epithelial cell that secretes mucus, often found in the respiratory and digestive tracts. Intercalated Discs Specialized connections between cardiac muscle cells that allow synchronized contraction. Neurons Nerve cells that transmit electrical impulses. They consist of a cell body, dendrites, and an axon. Neuroglia (Glial Cells) Supportive cells in nervous tissue that protect, insulate, and nourish neurons. UNIT4 Integumentary System and Homeostasis (temperature control) learning outcomes: 1 Describe the functions of the integumentary system and identify structural features associated with these functions 2 Describe the structure of the skin including features of its two tissues, the epidermis and the dermis. 3 Appreciate that the hypodermis (or subcutaneous tissue) is not considered part of the skin but is closely related to it 4 Explain the need for homeostasis 5 Identify the role of nerves and hormones in achieving a steady state. 6 Appreciate that the ability to maintain homeostasis independently is a developmental milestone. Integumentary System The body system consisting of the skin, hair, nails, glands, and associated structures. It serves as a protective barrier and plays roles in sensation, thermoregulation, and excretion. Epidermis The outermost layer of the skin, composed of stratified squamous epithelial tissue. It provides a protective barrier against environmental damage. Dermis The thick, middle layer of the skin beneath the epidermis. It contains connective tissue, blood vessels, nerve endings, hair follicles, and glands. Hypodermis (Subcutaneous Layer) The innermost layer of the skin, composed of adipose and connective tissue. It provides insulation, cushioning, and energy storage. Keratinocytes Cells in the epidermis that produce keratin, a protein that strengthens and waterproofs the skin. Melanocytes Cells in the epidermis that produce melanin, a pigment responsible for skin color and protection against UV radiation. Sebaceous Glands Oil-producing glands located in the dermis. They secrete sebum, which lubricates and waterproofs the skin and hair. Sweat Glands Eccrine glands: Produce watery sweat for thermoregulation.  Apocrine glands: Found in areas like the armpits, secreting thicker sweat associated with body odor. Hair Follicle A structure in the dermis from which hair grows. It is surrounded by sebaceous glands and supported by the arrector pili muscle. Arrector Pili Muscle A small muscle attached to hair follicles. It contracts to make hair stand on end (goosebumps) in response to cold or fear. Nails Structures made of keratin that protect the tips of fingers and toes. Stratum Corneum The outermost layer of the epidermis, composed of dead keratinized cells. It provides a durable barrier. Stratum Basale The deepest layer of the epidermis where new skin cells are generated through mitosis. Melanin A pigment produced by melanocytes that gives skin its color and protects against UV radiation. Thermoregulation The process of maintaining a stable internal temperature. The skin plays a key role by sweating or constricting blood vessels. Vitamin D Synthesis A function of the skin in which UV rays convert cholesterol in the skin into vitamin D, essential for calcium absorption. Cutaneous Sensation The ability of the skin to detect stimuli such as touch, pressure, temperature, and pain through sensory receptors. Basal Cell Carcinoma A common form of skin cancer originating in the basal layer of the epidermis. Melanoma A dangerous form of skin cancer that arises from melanocytes. Homeostasis Vocabulary Homeostasis The process by which the body maintains a stable internal environment despite changes in external conditions. Negative Feedback A regulatory mechanism in which a change in a variable triggers a response that counteracts the initial change, helping to maintain homeostasis. Example: Body temperature regulation. Positive Feedback A regulatory mechanism in which a change in a variable triggers a response that amplifies the initial change. Example: Blood clotting and childbirth contractions. Thermoregulation The maintenance of a stable internal temperature through processes like sweating, shivering, and blood vessel dilation or constriction. Osmoregulation The regulation of water and solute balance in the body. Set Point The ideal value for a physiological variable, such as body temperature (37°C or 98.6°F), that the body tries to maintain. Receptor A structure that detects changes in the environment (stimuli) and sends information to the control center. Example: Thermoreceptors in the skin. Control Center Processes the signal from the receptor and sends instructions to the effector to restore balance. Example: The hypothalamus in the brain. Effector An organ or structure that carries out the response to restore homeostasis. Example: Sweat glands or skeletal muscles (for shivering). Vasodilation The widening of blood vessels, which increases blood flow and helps release heat to cool the body. Vasoconstriction The narrowing of blood vessels, which reduces blood flow to conserve heat. Hypothermia A condition in which body temperature falls below the normal range, disrupting homeostasis. Hyperthermia A condition in which body temperature rises above the normal range, leading to potential heatstroke. pH Regulation The maintenance of a stable blood pH (around 7.4) through buffers, respiration, and kidney function. Glucose Homeostasis The regulation of blood glucose levels by hormones like insulin (lowers blood sugar) and glucagon (raises blood sugar).  Unit 5 Skeletal System learning outcomes: 1 Recall the characteristics of connective tissues (CT’s). 2 Describe the CTs that contribute to the components of the skeleton 3 Describe the role of the skeletal system and bone, including homeostasis. 4 Describe the composition of bone. 5 Using examples, classify bones according to their size and shape. 6 Identify the components of the skeleton and describe its two functional regions – the axial and appendicular skeleton. 7 Describe the role of joints in the skeleton and classify the joints structurally and functionally – giving examples. 8 Describe the degenerative changes that occur in the skeleton with increasing age. Key vocabulary Axial Skeleton The part of the skeleton that includes the skull, vertebral column, and thoracic cage. It supports the central axis of the body. Appendicular Skeleton The part of the skeleton that includes the bones of the limbs, shoulders, and pelvis. It enables movement and locomotion. Bone A rigid connective tissue that makes up the skeleton. It provides support, protection, and a site for blood cell production. Compact Bone The dense, hard outer layer of bone that provides strength and protection. Spongy Bone (Cancellous Bone) The porous inner layer of bone that contains red bone marrow and supports lighter structures without compromising strength. Osteocyte A mature bone cell that maintains the bone matrix and communicates with other bone cells. Osteoblast A cell responsible for bone formation by producing and secreting the bone matrix. Osteoclast A bone cell that breaks down bone tissue during remodeling and to release calcium into the bloodstream. Periosteum A dense layer of vascular connective tissue covering the outer surface of bones, except at the joints. Endosteum A thin membrane lining the internal surface of the medullary cavity in bones. Bone Marrow Red Bone Marrow: Produces red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. Found in spongy bone. Yellow Bone Marrow: Stores fat and is found in the medullary cavity of long bones. Epiphysis The rounded ends of a long bone, typically covered with articular cartilage to aid in joint movement. Diaphysis The shaft or central part of a long bone. It contains the medullary cavity. Articular Cartilage A smooth, slippery tissue covering the ends of bones at joints, reducing friction and absorbing shock. Medullary Cavity The hollow central cavity of long bones that contains yellow bone marrow in adults. Haversian System (Osteon) The basic structural unit of compact bone, consisting of a central canal surrounded by concentric rings of bone matrix. Lamellae Concentric rings of bone matrix found in the Haversian system. Lacunae Small spaces in bone tissue that house osteocytes. Canaliculi Tiny channels that connect lacunae to each other and to the central canal, allowing communication between osteocytes. Joint (Articulation) The site where two or more bones meet, allowing for movement and providing stability. Types: 1. Fibrous Joints: Immovable (e.g., sutures in the skull). 2. Cartilaginous Joints: Slightly movable (e.g., intervertebral discs). 3. Synovial Joints: Freely movable (e.g., shoulder, knee). Ligament A tough, fibrous connective tissue that connects bones to other bones, stabilizing joints. Tendon A fibrous connective tissue that attaches muscle to bone, enabling movement. Cartilage A flexible connective tissue that reduces friction in joints, supports structures, and cushions bones. Synovial Fluid A lubricating fluid found within synovial joints that reduces friction and nourishes cartilage. Suture A type of immovable joint found between the bones of the skull. Vertebral Column The spine, consisting of 33 vertebrae, divided into five regions: cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, and coccygeal. It supports the body and protects the spinal cord. Thoracic Cage (Rib Cage) The bony structure consisting of ribs, thoracic vertebrae, and sternum. It protects vital organs like the heart and lungs. Pelvis A bony structure that supports the lower limbs and protects organs in the pelvic cavity. Fracture A break in a bone caused by trauma, overuse, or medical conditions like osteoporosis. Ossification (Osteogenesis) The process by which bone is formed, remodeled, and repaired. Epiphyseal Plate (Growth Plate) A cartilage plate at the ends of long bones where bone growth occurs in children and adolescents. Bone Remodeling The process by which old bone is removed by osteoclasts and new bone is formed by osteoblasts. Calcium Homeostasis The regulation of calcium levels in the blood and bones, involving hormones like parathyroid hormone (PTH) and calcitonin. Skeleton The internal framework of the body made up of bones and cartilage. Support Resources Websites Here are some excellent websites for revising anatomy and physiology topics like cells, tissues, anatomical terms, the skeletal system, and the integumentary system: 1. GetBodySmart This site offers interactive diagrams, animations, and quizzes to help you learn anatomy and physiology, including the skeletal system and tissues. Visit: GetBodySmart GetBodySmart. 2. TeachMeAnatomy A comprehensive platform with detailed articles, illustrations, and question banks on anatomy, including cellular and tissue structures, anatomical planes, and organ systems. Visit: TeachMeAnatomy Teach Me Anatomy. 3. Free Anatomy Quiz A resource for testing your knowledge with quizzes on cells, skeletal systems, tissues, and anatomical terms. It also includes printable resources and games for fun revision. Visit: Free Anatomy Quiz  free-anatomy-quiz.com. 4. InnerBody This site provides interactive anatomy explorations for systems like the skeletal and integumentary systems, with detailed labels and descriptions. Visit: InnerBody GetBodySmart. 5. Kenhub Known for its professional visuals and clear explanations, this platform includes videos and quizzes to deepen your understanding of anatomy, including cellular structures and tissues. Visit: Kenhub GetBodySmart. These resources provide a mix of interactive tools, quizzes, and comprehensive explanations to support your revision effectively. Notebook Baseline test review Schoology End of chapter tests Schoology work.  Section B- Practice to Prepare YOU The following problems are sample problems that you may see on the exam. Unit 1 – Introduction to anatomy and physiology Q1 Describe the position of the mouth in comparison to the eyes. Q2 What are the 3 main types of plane that divide the body – give a brief description for each one of how it divides the body. Q3 Describe the anatomical position Q4 Why is using correct anatomical terminology important?  Unit 2 – Cells Q5 Order the organization of the human body from the smallest to largest. (tissue, organ system, cell, organism, organ). Q6 Match the cell organelle to the correct function Q7a)identify the cell in the picture below b) state its function c ) link the structure to its function Unit 3 – tissues Q8 What are the 4 types of tissue, give some examples of each type and some examples. Q9 Identify the following types of cells – there are two parts to naming the cells – one for the layers if present and one for the shape (example simple squamous – these have one layer and are flat) a) b) c) d) e) Q10) what are the 3 types of muscle tissue and where would you find each type? Unit 4 – integumentary system and homeostasis Q11) what are the 5 functions of the integumentary system? Q12) explain how the body will respond to an increase in temperature. Q13) label the diagram of the skin Q14 A patient has been exercising out in the midday sun in May in Dubai and has passed out – you need to check the patient for hyperthermia. a) What is hypothermia b) What are the signs and symptoms c) How would you, as the medical practitioner treat the hypothermia Q15 You have a newborn baby to take care of in hospital – in terms of maintaining the correct body temperature, what should you do and why is this important ? Unit 5 Skeletal system 16 The adult skeletal system is composed of how many bones? How many are in a child’s skeleton? What happens to the extra bones that a child has? 17 The skeleton is divided into two parts, what are these parts called, and give 2 examples of bones from each part 18 What are the 5 types of joints below called, give an example of each type 19 Match the following bones to its letter on the skeleton below. Cranium - , Scapula - , sternum , patella , femur mandible , ulna tibia clavicle radius humerus pelvis Vertebrae Rib , scapula 20 The following graph shows how Bone density changes with age in males and females. a) Approximately how much peak bone mass will be lost by age 70 in a) A male ______ b) a Female _____ b) Adequate dietary intake of calcium is very important for people in their first 20 years or so, Explain why SECTION B – ANSWERS ANSWERS WILL BE DISCUSSED IN DEPTH DURING CLASS FOR EXAM REVIEW TIME. Q1. The mouth is inferior and medial to the eyes. Q2. Sagittal Plane: Divides the body into left and right sections. o If it divides the body into equal halves, it is called the midsagittal plane. Transverse Plane: Divides the body into superior (top) and inferior (bottom) sections. Frontal (Coronal) Plane: Divides the body into anterior (front) and posterior (back) sections. Q3. The anatomical position is a standard reference posture where: The body is upright and standing. The head is facing forward. The arms are at the sides with palms facing forward.  The feet are flat and facing forward. This position ensures consistency in anatomical descriptions and terminology. Q4. Using precise anatomical terminology: Ensures clear and universal communication among healthcare and science professionals. Avoids ambiguity and misinterpretation. Helps describe locations, movements, and relationships between structures accurately. Unit 2 – Cells Q5. 1. Cell: The basic structural and functional unit of life. 2. Tissue: A group of similar cells performing a specific function. 3. Organ: A structure made up of two or more tissues working together to perform a specific function. 4. Organ System: A group of organs that work together to perform complex body functions. 5. Organism: A living individual made up of various organ systems working in harmony. Q6 Nucleus – control centre RER – contains ribosomes SER – lipid production Plasma membrane – controls movement into and out of the cell Mitochondria – powerhouse of the cell Cell wall – flexible barrier (not needed for A and P) Chloroplast – where photosynthesis takes place (not needed for A and P) Centriole – occurs in pairs and important for cell division Golgi apparatus – flattened stack – modifies and packages proteins Ribosomes – protein synthesis Q7 Nerve cell or neuron, is specialized to transmit electrical signals (nerve impulses) throughout the body. It facilitates communication between the brain, spinal cord, and other body parts, enabling processes like movement, sensation, and reflexes. Linking Structure of a Nerve Cell to Its Function Cell Body (Soma) o Structure: Contains the nucleus and organelles. o Function: Acts as the control center of the neuron, maintaining its health and metabolic activities. Dendrites o Structure: Branch-like extensions that protrude from the cell body. o Function: Receive signals from other neurons or sensory receptors and convey these signals to the cell body. The large surface area of dendrites increases the capacity to receive signals. Axon o Structure: A long, thin fiber extending from the cell body. o Function: Transmits electrical impulses away from the cell body to other neurons, muscles, or glands. The length allows communication across long distances in the body. Myelin Sheath o Structure: A fatty layer that covers the axon in segments with gaps o Function: Insulates the axon, allowing electrical impulses to travel more rapidly and efficiently Axon Terminals (Synaptic Terminals) o Structure: End points of the axon, containing vesicles filled with neurotransmitters.  oFunction: Transmit signals to the next neuron or target cell via chemical messengers released into the synaptic cleft. Synapse o Structure: The gap between the axon terminal of one neuron and the dendrites or cell body of another. o Function: Allows neurons to communicate using neurotransmitters, converting electrical signals into chemical ones and back. Q8 1 Epithelial Tissue Function: Covers body surfaces, lines hollow organs and cavities, and forms glands. Examples: Simple squamous epithelium: Found in the air sacs of the lungs (alveoli) and blood vessels, facilitating diffusion. Stratified squamous epithelium: Forms the outer layer of skin and lines the mouth and esophagus, providing protection. Cuboidal epithelium: Found in kidney tubules, aiding in secretion and absorption. 2. Connective Tissue Function: Supports, protects, and binds other tissues; also involved in transport and storage. Examples: Loose connective tissue (e.g., areolar tissue): Found under the skin, providing flexibility and support. Dense connective tissue (e.g., tendons and ligaments): Connects muscles to bones and stabilizes joints.  Cartilage: Found in joints, nose, and ears, providing support and cushioning. Bone: Provides structural support and protection for organs. Blood: Transports oxygen, nutrients, and waste products throughout the body. 3. Muscle Tissue Function: Enables movement of the body and substances within it. Examples: Skeletal muscle: Attached to bones, responsible for voluntary movements. Cardiac muscle: Found in the heart, enabling involuntary contractions to pump blood. Smooth muscle: Lines the walls of hollow organs like the intestines and blood vessels, controlling involuntary movements like digestion and blood flow. 4. Nervous Tissue Function: Transmits electrical impulses to control and communicate body functions. Examples: Neurons: Specialized cells that transmit signals. Found in the brain, spinal cord, and nerves. Neuroglia: Support cells that protect and maintain neurons. Q9a psudostratified columnar (ciliated) b) simple columnar c) simple cuboidal d) simple columnar (ciliated) Q10 Skeletal muscle: Attached to bones, responsible for voluntary movements. Cardiac muscle: Found in the heart, enabling involuntary contractions to pump blood. Smooth muscle: Lines the walls of hollow organs like the  intestines and blood vessels, controlling involuntary movements like digestion and blood flow. Q11 Protection o The skin acts as a barrier, shielding the body from physical damage, harmful microorganisms, UV radiation, and dehydration. Regulation of Body Temperature o The skin helps maintain body temperature through sweat production and blood vessel dilation or constriction. Sensation o Specialized nerve endings in the skin allow perception of touch, pain, pressure, and temperature changes. Excretion and Absorption o Sweat glands help remove waste products like salts and urea. The skin can also absorb certain substances, such as medications and small amounts of oxygen. 2. Synthesis of Vitamin D o When exposed to sunlight, the skin produces vitamin D, essential for calcium absorption and bone health. Q12 When the body detects a rise in temperature, it activates mechanisms to cool itself down and maintain homeostasis: 1. Sweating (Evaporative Cooling) o Sweat glands produce sweat, which evaporates from the skin surface, dissipating heat. 2. Vasodilation o Blood vessels in the skin widen (dilate), increasing blood flow to the surface, allowing more heat to escape. 3. Reduced Metabolic Rate o The body's internal metabolic processes slow down  slightly to minimize additional heat production. 4. Behavioral Adjustments o The brain may trigger behaviors like seeking shade, reducing physical activity, or removing excess clothing to promote cooling. These responses are regulated by the hypothalamus, the part of the brain that acts as the body’s thermostat. If these mechanisms fail, heat-related conditions like heat exhaustion or heatstroke may occur. Q13 Q14 Hyperthermia is a condition where the body temperature rises significantly above normal levels due to prolonged exposure to excessive heat, often coupled with dehydration. It differs from fever as it is not caused by an infection or illness but by external factors like environmental heat. Signs and symptoms Elevated body temperature (often exceeding 104°F or 40°C in severe cases). Hot, dry, or sweaty skin (depending on the stage of heat- related illness).  Dizziness or lightheadedness. Weakness or fatigue. Confusion, irritability, or disorientation. Nausea and vomiting. Rapid heartbeat and shallow breathing. In severe cases, loss of consciousness or seizures. Treatment : 1. Move the Patient to a Cooler Environment o Place them in the shade, air conditioning, or a well- ventilated area. 2. Initiate Cooling Measures o Remove excess clothing. o Apply cool or damp cloths to the skin, particularly to pulse points (neck, wrists, armpits). o Use a fan to promote evaporation or immerse the patient in cool water if available. 3. Hydrate the Patient o If conscious, provide cool (not icy) fluids to drink, avoiding caffeine or alcohol. o If unconscious or unable to drink, IV fluids may be necessary. 4. Monitor Vital Signs o Ensure the patient’s breathing and circulation are stable. Severe cases may require hospitalization for more advanced care like intravenous rehydration or electrolyte correction. Q15) To maintain the correct body temperature for a newborn: 1. Keep the Baby Warm o Use an incubator or a warm blanket to maintain a stable temperature. o Ensure the baby’s head (a major heat-loss area) is  covered with a cap. 2. Skin-to-Skin Contact o Encouraging skin-to-skin contact with the mother or caregiver helps stabilize the baby’s body temperature. 3. Monitor Room Temperature o Ensure the room is kept warm, ideally around 24– 26°C (75–78°F). Importance: Newborns have a high surface-area-to-body-mass ratio and lack sufficient fat insulation, making them prone to heat loss. Maintaining their temperature prevents conditions like hypothermia, which can lead to respiratory distress, reduced energy for feeding, and other complications. Q16) Adults have 206 bones. A newborn has approximately 270 bones. During development, many of the bones in a child’s skeleton, such as those in the skull and spine, fuse together to form single bones (e.g., the sacrum and coccyx in the vertebral column). Q17 The skeleton is divided into two main parts: 1. Axial Skeleton o Function: Supports and protects the brain, spinal cord, and thoracic organs. o Examples: Skull, vertebral column, and rib cage. 2. Appendicular Skeleton o Function: Facilitates movement and connects the body to the axial skeleton. o Examples: Humerus (upper arm bone), femur (thigh bone), and pelvic girdle. Q18 a) saddle - thumb b) pivot - neck c) gliding wrist and ankle d) hinge elbow e) ball and socket shoulder Q19 20 45% 75% Need calcium to form new bone, bones still growing at this stage. Adequate dietary intake of calcium is crucial during the first 20 years of life because this period encompasses the critical stages of bone growth and development, setting the foundation for skeletal health throughout life. Here's why:  Bone Formation and Peak Bone Mass o During childhood and adolescence, bones grow rapidly in size and density. Calcium is a key mineral for forming the structural framework of bones (hydroxyapatite crystals). o Peak bone mass (the maximum bone density and strength a person can achieve) is typically reached by the late teens to early 20s. After this, the ability to add new bone mass decreases significantly. A higher peak bone mass reduces the risk of osteoporosis and fractures later in life. 2. Support for Growth Spurts o Adolescents experience significant growth spurts, particularly during puberty. Calcium is necessary to support the rapid lengthening and strengthening of bones during this time. 3. Critical Role in Muscle and Nerve Function o Calcium is essential not only for bone health but also for proper muscle contractions, nerve signaling, and other cellular functions. During growth, the body prioritizes these processes, making adequate calcium intake even more important. 4. Prevention of Long-Term Deficiencies o If the dietary intake of calcium is insufficient, the body will draw calcium from the bones to maintain blood calcium levels for vital physiological processes. This can lead to weaker bones and a lower peak bone mass. To optimize bone health during these formative years, a balanced diet rich in calcium (e.g., dairy products, leafy greens, fortified foods) combined with adequate vitamin D and regular weight-bearing exercise is essential. THANK YOU FOR ATTEMPTING TO ANSWER PRACTICE TO PREPARE. THIS PRACTICE WILL BETTER HELP SUPPORT YOU ON YOUR EXAM.