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Questions and Answers
What does the icterus index measure?
What does the icterus index measure?
Which of the following is not a primary function of blood?
Which of the following is not a primary function of blood?
Which factor does not influence the specific gravity of blood?
Which factor does not influence the specific gravity of blood?
What is the normal pH range of blood in dogs?
What is the normal pH range of blood in dogs?
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What happens to the specific gravity of blood during severe dehydration?
What happens to the specific gravity of blood during severe dehydration?
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What role does blood play in the acid-base balance of the body?
What role does blood play in the acid-base balance of the body?
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Which of the following conditions would most likely lead to polycythemia?
Which of the following conditions would most likely lead to polycythemia?
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In what way does the copper sulphate method assess hemoglobin levels?
In what way does the copper sulphate method assess hemoglobin levels?
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What is the primary component of plasma?
What is the primary component of plasma?
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How is the viscosity of blood primarily influenced?
How is the viscosity of blood primarily influenced?
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Which physiological state is associated with lower than normal blood pH?
Which physiological state is associated with lower than normal blood pH?
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What are the main solid components of blood?
What are the main solid components of blood?
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What is the result of high specific gravity due to dehydration?
What is the result of high specific gravity due to dehydration?
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What is the primary fate of heme after erythrocyte destruction?
What is the primary fate of heme after erythrocyte destruction?
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Which of the following substances, when elevated, would suggest polycythemia?
Which of the following substances, when elevated, would suggest polycythemia?
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What is the typical range of blood pH levels in healthy mammals?
What is the typical range of blood pH levels in healthy mammals?
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What role does albumin play in bilirubin transport?
What role does albumin play in bilirubin transport?
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What primarily influences the viscosity of blood?
What primarily influences the viscosity of blood?
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What is the specific gravity of blood generally influenced by?
What is the specific gravity of blood generally influenced by?
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Which of the following indicates a condition of oligocythemia?
Which of the following indicates a condition of oligocythemia?
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What converts bilirubin into urobilinogen in the large intestine?
What converts bilirubin into urobilinogen in the large intestine?
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Which condition is most likely associated with increased blood viscosity?
Which condition is most likely associated with increased blood viscosity?
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What is the consequence of increased membrane permeability in aged red blood cells?
What is the consequence of increased membrane permeability in aged red blood cells?
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What happens to the iron from heme during erythrocyte destruction?
What happens to the iron from heme during erythrocyte destruction?
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What primarily causes a decrease in the specific gravity of blood?
What primarily causes a decrease in the specific gravity of blood?
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What is the main reason for the increased viscosity of blood in patients with polycythemia?
What is the main reason for the increased viscosity of blood in patients with polycythemia?
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What characterizes the composition of serum compared to plasma?
What characterizes the composition of serum compared to plasma?
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How does the body primarily regulate erythropoietic activity?
How does the body primarily regulate erythropoietic activity?
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Which vitamin is essential for DNA synthesis during the maturation of erythrocytes?
Which vitamin is essential for DNA synthesis during the maturation of erythrocytes?
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What is a common result of anemia on blood viscosity?
What is a common result of anemia on blood viscosity?
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What is NOT a typical factor affecting the concentration of RBCs?
What is NOT a typical factor affecting the concentration of RBCs?
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Which statement about erythropoiesis is accurate?
Which statement about erythropoiesis is accurate?
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Which of the following plays a crucial role in maintaining the iron state within red blood cells?
Which of the following plays a crucial role in maintaining the iron state within red blood cells?
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What would indicate a need for increased production of reticulocytes?
What would indicate a need for increased production of reticulocytes?
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Which condition is likely to result from a deficiency of copper in pigs?
Which condition is likely to result from a deficiency of copper in pigs?
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Study Notes
Veterinary Physiology 1: Blood #1
- Blood is a fluid connective tissue flowing throughout the cardiovascular system.
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Plasma is the fluid portion (55-70% of total blood volume).
- Plasma is mostly water (91-92%).
- It contains proteins, organic, and inorganic compounds.
- Its colour varies from yellow to colourless, depending on the diet, species, and quantity.
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Solids make up 8-9% of the blood (30-45% of total blood volume). This includes the cellular components:
- Erythrocytes (red blood cells)
- Leukocytes (white blood cells)
- Thrombocytes (platelets)
Learning Objectives
- Understand blood's components and properties.
- Discuss blood functions.
- Explain blood specific gravity determination methods.
- Differentiate between plasma and serum.
- Detail erythrocyte shapes across species.
- Provide an overview of erythropoiesis.
- Describe RBC metabolism and fate of RBCs.
- Detail erythrocyte destruction processes.
- Understand various blood RBC concentration abnormalities.
Learning Objectives (Continued)
- Define icterus index and its significance.
- Explain the normal blood pH in various animals, including their normal ranges.
- Specify the roles of blood: transportation, regulation of homeostasis, protection.
- Detail the roles of blood, such as:
- Transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide.
- Transport of nutrients.
- Transport of hormones.
- Transport of waste products.
- Explain blood-specific gravity, including the ratio to the weight of a same volume of distilled water.
- Detail how plasma protein concentration influences blood specific gravity.
- Detail how erythrocyte concentration affects blood specific gravity.
- Describe the copper sulfate method in hemoglobin determination.
Introduction Cont'd
- Icterus index (serum or plasma) estimates the total bilirubin concentration.
- Blood specific gravity is determined by comparing plasma colour to a potassium dichromate standard solution.
- The normal blood pH is ~7.4.
- Venous blood is slightly more acidic than arterial blood due to higher CO₂ levels.
- Blood performs critical functions including transportation, regulation of homeostasis and protection.
Introduction Cont'd
- Specific gravity is increased by:
- Polycythemia: High altitude, newborns.
- Severe dehydration (vomiting, diarrhoea), causing fluid loss.
- Hemoconcentration: Plasma loss (e.g., burns).
Introduction Cont'd
- Specific gravity is decreased by:
- Pregnancy: Increased plasma volume.
- Anemia: Reduced red blood cells.
- Renal disease: Albumin loss.
- Hemodilution: Excessive secretion of glucocorticoids, or prolonged use of glucocorticoids.
- Starvation and malnutrition: Plasma protein reduction.
- Intravenous fluid transfusions.
- Blood viscosity is determined with a viscometer.
- High viscosity is linked to polycythemia, congestive heart failure, jaundice, vomiting, diarrhea.
- Low blood viscosity can be linked to anemia and oedema (accumulation of fluid in tissues)
Introduction Cont'd
- Serum is plasma that does not contain clotting factors. It's the liquid remaining after clotting.
- Serum differs from plasma as it lacks clotting factors like fibrinogen and prothrombin.
Erythrocytes
- Erythrocytes are ~60-70% water, ~35% solids (mostly hemoglobin).
- RBCs contain carbonic anhydrase, transporting carbon dioxide as bicarbonate to the lungs.
- Hemoglobin is a crucial acid-buffer, responsible for most of the blood's acid-base buffering.
- Mammalian RBCs are non-nucleated with a biconcave shape, differing across species.
- RBC size and diameter vary based on species.
Erythrocytes Cont'd
- RBC production depends on several factors, including species, age, sex, environment, exercise, nutritional status, and altitude.
- Erythropoiesis: The process of RBC formation from stem cells in bone marrow.
- RBC formation requires about 5 days from stem cell to mature RBC.
- Hypoxia is the main regulator of erythropoietic activity in bone marrow.
- The kidneys produce ~90% of erythropoietin and the liver produces ~10%.
Erythrocytes Cont'd
- Vitamin B₁₂, folic acid, thiamine (B₁), pantothenic acid, nicotinic acid, vitamin E, pyridoxine (B₆), riboflavin, biotin, and ascorbic acid are essential for RBC maturation and erythropoiesis.
- Minerals (iron, copper, cobalt) are essential for hemoglobin synthesis.
Erythrocytes Cont'd
- Reticulocytes are immature red blood cells with bluish threads.
- Reticulocyte count increases in diseases with heavy blood loss or RBC destruction.
- Reticulocytes have less or no oxygen-carrying capacity compared to mature RBCs.
RBC Metabolism
- Energy is required for RBCs to maintain membrane shape and flexibility.
- RBCs maintain high K+, low Na⁺, and low Ca²⁺ levels to regulate osmotic balance.
- RBCs maintain iron in the Fe²⁺ state.
- RBCs generate reduced glutathione to maintain the ferrous iron state and act as antioxidants.
- The Embden-Meyerhof and oxidative pentose phosphate pathways are essential for energy production in mature RBCs (due to the absence of mitochondria).
Fate of RBC
- RBCs change shape when traversing capillaries and become less flexible at the end of their lifespan.
- RBC destruction happens in the bone marrow in most animals, in the spleen and liver in humans and birds respectively.
- Two types of RBC destruction:
- intravascular hemolysis
- extravascular hemolysis
- Hemoglobin is broken down, iron stored, and the globulin is recycled.
Fate of RBC Cont'd
- Most of the aged RBCs are destroyed by the mononuclear phagocytic system (MPS).
- The MPS includes macrophages, which catabolize hemoglobin (Hb) and proteins.
- Hemoglobin is broken down into amino acids and used in protein synthesis.
- Iron from the heme is stored as ferritin and hemosiderin, used to produce new hemoglobin.
- Bilirubin is formed, converted into bile pigments, and eliminated through the liver and intestines.
Fate of RBC Cont'd
- Hemolysis caused by certain external agents:
- Blood parasites (Babesia, Theileria, Trypanosoma, Sarcocystis).
- Chemicals (copper, lead, nitrate, nitrite).
- Lifespan of various species varies.
Abnormalities of RBC Concentration
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Polycythemia: Increased RBC count. Two types:
- Physiological (secondary): Compensatory response to hypoxia (low oxygen in tissues).
- Pathological: Due to bone marrow cancer or other causes.
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Oligocythemia: Reduced RBC count. Two types:
- Physiological: Hemodilution (e.g., pregnancy).
- Pathological: Anemia caused by various factors (blood loss, impaired production, etc.).
- Anemia: Abnormal reduction in RBC count or hemoglobin content.
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Description
This quiz covers the crucial components and functions of blood in veterinary physiology. You will explore the differences between plasma and serum, the shapes of erythrocytes across species, as well as erythropoiesis, RBC metabolism, and destruction processes. Enhance your understanding of blood as a vital fluid connective tissue within the cardiovascular system.
