US Imperialism: Motives and Expansion (1890s)

• From 1790-1890, US territorial expansion focused on westward expansion to the Pacific, known as "Manifest Destiny."
• 1890 marked the end of the Western Indian Wars with the Battle of Wounded Knee.
• In 1893, Frederick Jackson Turner declared the western frontier was closed.
• The 1890s saw the US transition into a global power with overseas territories.

Imperialist Motives for the US

• Economic factors: Opening new markets abroad (especially in Asia) for US products and gaining access to new raw materials.
• Political ambition: Demonstrating strength and competing with European powers and Japan.
• The US aimed to avoid becoming a second-rate power.
• Strategic considerations: Acquiring overseas naval bases to safeguard trading lanes.
• Alfred T. Mahan's "The Influence of Sea Power Upon History" (1890) emphasized the need for a strong navy to become a powerful country.
• A larger navy facilitates acquiring territories, protecting trade routes, and expanding US trade.
• The Panama Canal's construction was motivated by these factors.
• Ideological justification: "White man’s burden" which is the perceived duty of Western civilization to manage less-developed, non-white nations.
• In 1885, Rev. Josiah Strong argued in "Our Country" that Anglo-Saxon culture was superior and should be spread.
• These ideas rationalized the colonization of overseas territories by Europe and the US.

Case Study: Hawaii

• 1820s: US missionaries began converting native Hawaiians to Christianity.
• 1830s-1860s: US sugar and pineapple planters (like the Dole family) acquired land.
• 1887: The US signed a treaty establishing Pearl Harbor.
• 1893: Plantation owners orchestrated a revolt that overthrew Queen Liliuokalani.
• President Cleveland initially rejected annexation.
• Hawaii was annexed by President McKinley and Congress in 1898 during the Spanish-American War.

Spanish-American War (1898)

• Cuba and Puerto Rico were Spain’s last colonies in the New World in 1898.
• 1895: A major revolt against Spanish rule captured half of Cuba.
• Spain sent Gen. Valeriano ("Butcher") Weyler to suppress the revolt.
• Weyler established reconcentration camps where many died from starvation, disease, or neglect.
• The US had significant investments in Cuban sugar plantations, and Americans sympathized with the Cuban plight.
• "Yellow journalism" emerged, employing exaggerated and sensationalized stories by publishers like William Randolph Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer to attract readers.
• Feb. 1898: The De Lome Letter, where the Spanish prime minister described President McKinley as "weak," angered Americans.
• Feb. 15, 1898: The USS Maine exploded in Havana harbor, killing 268 US sailors, leading to the battle cry "Remember the Maine."
• The "yellow press" immediately blamed Spanish saboteurs, though it was likely a boiler explosion.
• April 1898: McKinley and Congress declared war against Spain.
• The Teller Amendment declared that the US would not annex Cuba after the war.
• April - August 1898: The Spanish-American War lasted only four months and resulted in few American deaths, leading Sec. of State John Hay to call it "a splendid little war".
• May 1, 1898: Commodore George Dewey destroyed the Spanish fleet at Manila Bay in the Philippines.
• With the help of Emilio Aguinaldo, the Philippines fell under US control.
• Asst. Sec. of the Navy Theodore Roosevelt led the "Rough Riders" in the Battle of San Juan Hill in Cuba.
• The Treaty of Paris (1898) officially ended the war.
• The US acquired Guam, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines (for $20M).
• Cuba gained independence.
• A key debate emerged over the future of these new territories.
• The Anti-Imperialist League, including members like Andrew Carnegie, Samuel Gompers, and Mark Twain, opposed annexing the Philippines, arguing for Filipino self-determination.
• President McKinley favored, and the Senate ratified, the treaty.

Post-War Territories

• Cuba became largely independent after 1902 when US forces left.
• The 1901 Platt Amendment granted the US the right to intervene in Cuba to restore order and banned Cuba from making treaties limiting its independence.
• It enabled the US to maintain a naval base at Guantanamo Bay, effectively making Cuba a US protectorate.
• Puerto Rico became a US Commonwealth.
• 1900: The Foraker Act granted Puerto Rico limited self-government.
• 1917: US citizenship was granted to Puerto Rican citizens.
• The "Insular Cases" (1901) determined that US constitutional rights did not automatically extend to territorial possessions.
• The Philippines did not receive expected independence immediately.
• The US was interested in the Philippines due to its proximity to Asian markets, especially China.
• The Philippine War (1899-1902), led by Emilio Aguinaldo, was a brutal guerilla war against US forces.
• The US won, but with significant losses.
• The Philippines gained independence on July 4, 1946.

Open Door Policy & Boxer Rebellion

• The US sought access to Chinese markets but faced European "spheres of influence" which granted exclusive trading rights.
• 1899: Sec. of State Hay announced the "Open-Door Policy" advocating equal trading rights for all nations in China.
• 1900: The Boxer Rebellion, a Chinese uprising against foreign influence, targeted foreign offices and Christian missionaries.
• An international force, including the US, suppressed the rebellion, granting the US limited trading access to China.

Theodore Roosevelt's Presidency

• Elections of 1900: McKinley chose war hero Theodore Roosevelt as his VP and won re-election
• Sept. 1901: Theodore Roosevelt became president after McKinley's assassination.
• He was the youngest president at 42 years old.
• Under Roosevelt, presidential power and advocacy increased.
• He pursued an expansionist foreign policy of "speak softly and carry a big stick." implying diplomacy backed by military strength.
• A canal in Central America had long been desired to reduce travel time between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, benefitting trade and military interests.
• Roosevelt attempted to negotiate with Colombia for the right to build a canal in Panama but faced resistance.
• In 1903, Roosevelt supported the Panama independence movement, leading to Panama granting the US the right to build the canal via the Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty.
• The Panama Canal was constructed between 1904 and 1914.
• Panama gained full ownership of the canal in 1999.

Roosevelt Corollary

• In the 1823 Monroe Doctrine, the US warned European nations to stay out of the Western Hemisphere.
• Early 1900s: Latin American countries owed money to European countries like Great Britain and Germany.
• In 1902, Great Britain sent warships to Venezuela to collect debts.
• Roosevelt worried about growing European intervention and influence.
• 1904: Roosevelt issued the "Roosevelt Corollary" to the Monroe Doctrine.
• It declared the US had the right to intervene in Latin America to manage debts owed to Europe, enabling the US to implement financial reforms and repayment plans.
• This increased US involvement in Latin America, straining relations.

Relations with Japan

• 1905: Roosevelt won the Nobel Peace Prize for brokering the end of the Russo-Japanese War.
• The US became concerned about Japan's growing power in Asia.
• 1906: The San Francisco Board of Education segregated Japanese students.
• Japan was angered by this discrimination.
• 1907: Roosevelt negotiated the "Gentlemen’s Agreement" with Japan.
• Japan agreed to restrict emigration of Japanese workers to the US by withholding passports.
• Roosevelt pressured San Francisco to repeal the segregation ruling.
• 1907-1908: Roosevelt sent the "Great White Fleet" on a world tour to demonstrate US naval power.
• Presidents McKinley, Roosevelt, Taft, and Wilson believed the US should play a more active role in world affairs.

The US transitioned into a global power in the 1890s, driven by economic, political, and strategic factors. The desire for new markets, competition with European powers, and the need for naval bases fueled overseas expansion. Alfred T. Mahan's work emphasized naval power.