Training Principles and Adaptations in Sports

Training Principles and Adaptations

• Students should understand basic training principles
• Students should be able to develop training programs demonstrating knowledge of bioenergetics and metabolism
• Students should be able to apply training principles to program development

General Principles of Training: Principle of Individualization

• Individualizing training programs begins with matching the participant's sport or fitness goals to the sport
• Evaluate each individual participant
• Create a periodization sequence for general, specific preparation, competitive, and transition phases
• Develop a training format that dictates the number of days per week for each type of training or energy system stressed
• Determine training load (distance, workload, repetitions) relative to the individual's evaluation

General Principles of Training: Principle of Specificity

• Any training program should start with defining the goal.
• The training program should emphasize the physiological systems most relevant to the given sport.
• Training adaptations are highly specific to the type of activity, training volume, and intensity.
• SAID principle (Specific Adaptation to Imposed Demands) is relevant

Metabolic Specificity of Training

• Metabolic Specificity of Training
• Interval Training
• Combination Training

Interval Training

• Interval training emphasizes bioenergetic adaptations for more efficient energy transfer within metabolic pathways
• Allows for accomplishing more training at higher intensities
• Difficult to establish definitive work-to-rest ratios

Combination Training

• Adds aerobic endurance training to enhance recovery (recovery primarily relies on aerobic mechanisms) in anaerobic athletes
• May reduce muscle girth, strength, speed, and power-related performance in some sports

General Principles of Training: Principle of Overload

• Overload of metabolic systems can be achieved in one of two ways:
  • Manipulating time and distance
  • Monitoring lactic acid levels.
• Maximal oxygen uptake is more a cardiovascular than a metabolic variable.

General Principles of Training: Principle of Progressive Overload

• Must increase demands on the body to make improvements
• Muscle overload: muscles must be loaded beyond normal loading for improvement
• Progressive training: as strength increases, resistance/repetitions must also increase to further increase strength

The Time or Distance Technique

• Includes continuous and/or interval training
• Long Slow Distance (LSD) workout: Continuous aerobic training session at a steady pace for extended time/distance
• Fartlek Workout: Combines continuous running demands with anaerobic demands of sporadic speed intervals
• Interval Training: Selected work interval (distance/time), target time, and predetermined recovery period before the next repetition

General Principles of Training: Principle of Progression

• Progression can be achieved by increasing distance/workload, decreasing time, increasing repetitions/sessions, decreasing relief interval, or changing workout frequency
• The key to successful progression is an increase in intensity and total training volume
• Progression should be gradual

General Principles of Training: Adaptation

• Adaptation is evident when a given distance/workload can be covered faster with equal or lower perception of fatigue or exertion
• This may also occur with less physiological disruption (lower La values) and faster recovery

Neuromuscular Adaptations to Resistance Training

• Muscle function: increased strength, endurance, and power
• Muscle size/structure: increased whole muscle cross-sectional area, muscle fiber cross-sectional area, and myofibril protein content
• Connective tissue: Increased collagen synthesis and stiffness
• Neural adaptations: increased motor unit recruitment, synchronization, and decreased Golgi tendon organ reflex
• Metabolic adaptations: increased glycogen, phosphcreatine (PC), and creatine phosphokinase (CPK)

General Principles of Training: Maintenance

• Once a specific level of endurance adaptation is achieved, it can be maintained with the same or reduced work volume
• One day per week may suffice for short periods (e.g., one-week vacation) if intensity is maintained

General Principles of Training: Retrogression/Plateau/Reversibility

• Individuals may fail to improve or regress during training
• Pattern of non-improvement warrants checking for overtraining
• A shift in training emphasis or more easy days might be necessary

Causes of plateau/retrogression/reversibility

• Too much time on same workout/equipment/environment
• Inadequate or excessive competition

General Principles of Training: Principle of Reversibility

• "Use it or lose it": Detraining reverses all gains

Basic Training Principles - Components of Physical Fitness

• 4 Components of Physical Fitness:
  • Muscular Strength
  • Cardiovascular Endurance
  • Flexibility
  • Body Composition

Muscular Strength/Endurance

• Muscular strength is the capacity to exert force against resistance. Resistance training is the most efficient way to increase strength quickly
• Muscular Endurance is the body's ability to sustain prolonged activity; it can be improved by using moderate loads and by progressively increasing repetitions.

Body Composition

• Amount of body fat and muscle mass; affects sporting performance.

Flexibility

• Range of motion (ROM) possible in a joint or series of joints; good ROM increases resistance to muscle soreness.

Basic Exercise Principle: FITT Principle

• F- Frequency: number of times per week
• I- Intensity: level of exertion
• T- Time: workout duration
• T- Type: type of workout

Exercise training recommendations - Aerobic/Resistance/Flexibility/Balance

• Recommendations for types of exercise, intensity, duration, frequency, and progression for aerobic/resistance/flexibility/balance training

Cardiovascular Disease and Exercise Capacity

• Designing aerobic exercise programs for cardiac patients should consider:
  • Specific pathophysiology of the disease
  • Mechanisms limiting exercise performance
  • Individual differences in functional capacity

Six conditions precluding cardiac patients from resistance training

• Unstable angina
• Uncontrolled arrhythmias
• Left ventricular outflow obstruction
• Recent history of heart failure (CHF)
• Severe valvular disease/hypertension
• Poor left ventricular function/exercise capacity

Activity 1 (10-minutes)

• Check comprehension
• Questions may be included for evaluation

FITT Principle Regimens

• Flexibility
• Muscular Strength
• Cardiovascular Conditioning

Stimulating Muscular Adaptations through Resistance Training

• Strength: High loads, few repetitions, full recovery
• Muscle Size: Moderate loads, high volume, short/moderate rest periods
• Muscular Endurance: Low intensity, high volume, little recovery

Alteration of Muscle Fiber Types

• Endurance/Resistance training promotes a fast-to-slow shift in skeletal muscle fiber types
• Shift is often small; generally results in conversion of Type IIx fibers to Type IIa fibers

References

• Wilmore, Costill, Kenney (2008) Physiology of Sport and Exercise
• Plowman, Smith (1997) Exercise Physiology for Health, Fitness, and Performance

This quiz covers fundamental training principles and adaptations relevant to sports and fitness program development. Students will explore concepts such as individualization, specificity, and the importance of bioenergetics in designing effective training plans. Engage with essential training strategies to enhance performance and meet individual goals.