Training Principles in Sports

Study Notes

Training principles are the same for all sports, regardless of intensity, duration, and sex.
The objective is to bring about physiological and metabolic adaptations to improve performance in designated tasks and delay onset of fatigue.
These principles apply to all forms of training including strength, endurance, speed, flexibility, and agility.

Regular application of exercise stresses greater than normal brings about specific adaptations and enhances physiologic function.
The overload may be achieved by manipulating the frequency, intensity, duration, and rest.
FITT and FITT-VP are commonly used to apply overload principles.

Progressive overload is required to continually stress the body, requiring further system adaptation.
Completion of the same exercise stimulus is ineffective, requiring progressive overload.
Overload should be increased gradually, typically by 5-10% per week.

The specific type of exercise elicits specific adaptations to imposed demands (SAID).

Individuals respond differently to training stimulus, requiring individualized exercise programs.

Detraining occurs after a termination of a training program; the benefits of prior training are transient and reversible.
1-2 weeks of detraining reduces metabolic and exercise capacity.

The GAS applies to all forms of training (aerobic, anaerobic, strength).
Training progresses through three stages:
- Stage 1: Alarm or shock phase (initial response to training)
- Stage 2: Resistance phase, also known as supercompensation (adaptation to exercise stress)
- Stage 3: Exhaustion phase (extended exposure to stress, leading to reduction in function).

Frequency represents the number of exercise sessions per day, week, or month.
Intensity represents the training stimulus (load or work in a certain time).
- Lower intensity and greater volume for health benefits.
- Higher intensity and lower volume for aerobic fitness.
Duration/time represents the total exercise duration or number of repetitions of a load.
- Continuous vs intermittent exercise.
Rest is the time interval between reps, sets, and sessions.
This factors must be considered together to determine the physiological outcomes of training.

Overload is a key principle where a greater stress or load is required for training adaptations to take place. This load can be increased through modifications to intensity, duration, or frequency.
Specificity follows the SAID principle (Specific Adaptation to Imposed Demands). Training gains are muscle-fibre, energy system, contraction velocity, and contraction type specific.
Reversibility implies that training gains are lost when overload is removed.

Cardiovascular adaptations include an increase in heart size, cardiac output (both heart rate and stroke volume), and blood volume.
Muscle adaptations include changes in fibre type, capillary density, and mitochondria (number, size, and efficiency).
Metabolic adaptations include changes in carbohydrate utilisation, fat oxidation, and lactate threshold.

Training to increase VO2 max involves large muscle group dynamic activity, for durations between 20 and 60 minutes 3 to 5 times per week at 50 to 85% of VO2 max.
Expected increases in VO2 max are influenced by initial fitness levels:
- Average increase is 15%.
- 2-3% increase in those with high initial VO2 max, requiring 95 to 100% VO2 max intensity.
- 30-50% increase in those with low initial VO2 max with 40 to 70% VO2 max intensity.
Genetic predisposition accounts for 40 to 66% of VO2 max, with this being a prerequisite for a VO2 max of 60 to 80 ml kg–1 min–1.

Left ventricle changes the most in response to endurance training.
Internal dimensions increase due to an increase in ventricular filling.
Left ventricle wall thickness increases, allowing for a more forceful contraction.

Stroke volume increases with endurance training.
Decreased heart rate allows increased diastolic filling time. This is due to the Frank-Starling Mechanism, which states that the strength of ventricular contraction increases when the ventricle is stretched prior to contraction.
Endurance training increases stroke volume at rest and during submaximal and maximal exercise. This is due to a higher end diastolic volume (EDV) caused by increased blood plasma and greater diastolic filling time.
An increase in the size of the heart allows the left ventricle to stretch more and fill with more blood. Increased wall thickness also enhances contractility.
Reduced systemic blood pressure lowers the resistance to the flow of blood pumped from the left ventricle.

Untrained individuals: Experience a small increase in stroke volume during the transition from rest to exercise.
Trained individuals: Have a larger stroke volume during rest and exercise.
Stroke volume is key in increasing cardiac output in trained individuals. As trained individuals experience higher heart rates, their stroke volume is also increased to achieve higher cardiac output.
Maximum stroke volume in untrained individuals occurs between 40-50% of VO2max (~110-120 bpm). This is due to the Frank-Starling Mechanism.

At submaximal intensities, a decrease in heart rate is observed due to increased parasympathetic tone and increased stroke volume.
At maximal intensities, a decrease in heart rate is observed, likely due to increased efficiency in cardiac output and blood flow.