Social Psychology and Research Methods

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Questions and Answers

What does internal validity refer to in an experiment?

The confidence that the independent variable caused the dependent variable (correct)

The ability to generalize findings to other situations

The extent to which study conditions are naturalistic

The participants' engagement level in the study

Which of the following describes social desirability in research?

Participants provide accurate and honest responses

The comparison of participant behavior to real-world actions

The tendency of participants to avoid reporting sensitive topics

Participants want to present themselves favorably to researchers (correct)

What is the primary disadvantage of observational data?

It may produce biased responses

It can be time-consuming and hard to interpret (correct)

It does not allow for the measurement of internal states

It lacks authenticity and realism

Which term refers to the similarity of an experiment to real-world actions or events?

Mundane realism Signup and view all the answers

What is one of the main challenges of archival research?

It limits the researcher’s ability to choose participant demographics Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary characteristic of referent power?

It arises from the desire to emulate admired individuals. Signup and view all the answers

Which compliance technique involves initial small requests to increase the likelihood of agreement to larger requests?

Foot-in-the-door Signup and view all the answers

What does overjustification refer to in the context of motivation?

Loss of intrinsic motivation due to frequent rewards. Signup and view all the answers

The Institutional Review Board (IRB) is primarily responsible for which of the following?

Reviewing research studies for ethical standards. Signup and view all the answers

What is an example of reactance in social psychology?

Refusing to comply when faced with excessive pressure. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of keeping participants and experimenters blind in a study?

To prevent participant bias from influencing outcomes Signup and view all the answers

What term describes the cues that may inadvertently inform participants about the true nature of a study?

Demand characteristics Signup and view all the answers

Which type of sample often relies on readily available individuals, primarily college students?

Convenience sample Signup and view all the answers

What phenomenon occurs when people perceive a nonexistent relationship between two variables?

Illusory correlation Signup and view all the answers

What describes the tendency for individuals to utilize minimal cognitive resources when processing information?

Cognitive miser Signup and view all the answers

What type of information is considered more influential in individual judgments despite being less statistically valid?

Case history information Signup and view all the answers

What do schemas help individuals do in the context of social cognition?

They provide a structured way to interpret new information Signup and view all the answers

Which concept pertains to the beliefs individuals hold about associations or correlations between different elements?

Judgments of covariation Signup and view all the answers

What does salience refer to in the context of schemas?

How perceived a feature is in the environment. Signup and view all the answers

Which principle suggests that if many potential causes are plausible, we are less likely to attribute an effect to any specific cause?

Discounting Principle Signup and view all the answers

What generally influences whether a schema is activated in a given situation?

The natural contours of the situation. Signup and view all the answers

How does the principle of covariation relate to causation?

It states that the absence of a cause implies the absence of an effect. Signup and view all the answers

What is the relationship between priming and schemas?

Priming enhances the likelihood of using recently applied schemas. Signup and view all the answers

What is a self-fulfilling prophecy in social psychology?

An expectation that influences behaviors to confirm the expectation. Signup and view all the answers

What differentiates internal factors from external factors in attribution theory?

Internal factors are characteristics of an individual, while external factors are influenced by the environment. Signup and view all the answers

How does consensus play a role in attribution theory?

It assesses whether others behave similarly in response to the same stimulus. Signup and view all the answers

What does the Fundamental Attribution Error primarily involve?

Over-attributing behaviors to dispositional factors Signup and view all the answers

Which bias involves assuming others share our opinions and behaviors more than they actually do?

False Consensus Effect Signup and view all the answers

What does Self-Handicapping entail?

Creating obstacles to rationalize future failures Signup and view all the answers

What is the Illusion of Control most closely associated with?

Underestimating the role of chance in outcomes Signup and view all the answers

Characterological self-blame is best described as what?

Attributing negative situations to personal traits Signup and view all the answers

The belief in a just world suggests what about individuals?

They deserve outcomes based on their moral character Signup and view all the answers

Offset Responsibility refers to the belief that a person is responsible for what?

Working towards a solution for their condition Signup and view all the answers

The Actor-Observer Bias highlights a difference in attribution between whom?

Observers and actors in a situation Signup and view all the answers

What leads to more inconsistency between attitudes and behaviors?

Strength of attitudes being low Signup and view all the answers

Which factor does NOT impact the consistency of attitudes and behavior?

Personal interests Signup and view all the answers

How can cognitive dissonance be reduced when behavior cannot be changed?

By altering the attitude to be more consistent with the behavior Signup and view all the answers

What describes the tension experienced when committed to one course of action over another?

Post-decisional dissonance Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary difference between extrinsic justification and intrinsic justification?

Extrinsic justification stems from outside motivations, whereas intrinsic comes from internal motivations Signup and view all the answers

Which statement accurately describes Self Perception Theory?

It indicates that behavior can shape attitudes when they are unclear Signup and view all the answers

What triggers a higher likelihood of acting in accordance with an attitude?

Reduced situational pressures Signup and view all the answers

What is the focus of Hot Theory in relation to cognitive dissonance?

It underlines the illogical nature of cognitive processes in dissonance Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Social psychology is the scientific study of how people's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are affected by others. This includes how people perceive others and situations, how they respond, and how they are influenced by social situations.
Matching principle: People tend to form relationships with those similar to them.
Intrapersonal phenomena: Occurring within a single person.
Interpersonal phenomena: Interactions between two people.
Group phenomena: How people act in groups and how group dynamics affect attitudes and behaviors.

Research Methods

Variable: A factor that can take on different values (at least two).
Independent variable: The variable that is manipulated, influencing the dependent variable.
Dependent variable: The variable being measured or observed, potentially affected by the independent variable.
Confirmatory research: Testing a hypothesis.
Exploratory research: Investigating a topic without a specific hypothesis.
Correlational study: Examining associations without implying causation.
Positive correlation: Variables move in the same direction.
Negative correlation: Variables move in opposite directions.
Correlation coefficients range from -1.00 to +1.00; a value of 0 indicates no correlation.

Research Methods (continued)

Correlation does not equal causation.
Random assignment in experiments is necessary to avoid bias and establish cause-and-effect relationships.
Field studies: Conducted in natural settings, high in mundane realism (similar to real-life scenarios); high in external validity (results generalizable)
Lab studies: Conducted in controlled settings, high in experimental realism (engaging); high internal validity (confidence in cause-and-effect)
Internal validity: Confidence that the independent variable caused the outcome.
External validity: Generalizability of the findings to other situations and people.
Experimental realism: Degree to which the study engages participants.
Mundane realism: Similarity of the study procedures/setting to real-life experiences
Observational data: Directly observing behavior.
Self-report data: Data collected using surveys or interviews (e.g., how people feel & think).
Archival research: Using existing data to study phenomena.

Social cognition: How people make inferences and judgments from social information.
Social inference: The process of gathering and interpreting information to draw conclusions.
Statistical Information: Data about large groups of individuals.
Case history information: Data about specific individuals.
Judgments of Covariation/Covariance: Understanding how things relate to one another (association between things)

Illusory Correlation, Schemas, and Priming

Illusory correlation: A perceived relationship between two things where none exists (often when things are seen together).
Schemas: Organized sets of beliefs and expectations about the world.
Hierarchical Organization of schemas (broad to specific).
Natural contours: The cues and features in a situation that guide schema use.
Salience: How noticeable a characteristic or event is in a given environment.
Priming: Exposure to one stimulus can trigger related thoughts and ideas.
Confirmatory Hypothesis Testing: People tend to look for evidence that confirms their pre-existing beliefs.
Domino Theory: A historical idea, where one event leads to another and so on.
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: When expectations about another person lead to behavior that confirms the expectation.

Attribution

Attribution: Explanations for behavior (especially unexpected behaviors).
Locus: Degree to which behavior is attributed to internal (personality) or external (situational) factors.
Internal/Dispositional Factors: Aspects of a person (personality, attitudes).
External/Situational Factors: External factors like social pressure.
Principle of Covariation: A cause must be present and present when an effect is observed.
Discounting Principle: Fewer potential causes of behavior means a stronger attribution of causality to a certain cause.
Disctinctiveness: Is this the only time the actor has behaved in a certain manner.
Consensus: Do others act the same way in the same situation
Consistency: Is the actor behaving consistently in the same situation.
Fundamental Attribution Error: Overemphasizing internal factors and underemphasizing external factors when explaining the behavior of others (e.g., assuming someone is mean because of their personality instead of considering a recent difficult event).
Actor-Observer Bias: The tendency to attribute our own actions to situational factors but the actions of others to dispositional (internal) factors.
False Consensus Effect/Bias: The tendency to overestimate how much others agree with our own thoughts and behaviors.
Self-Serving Bias: Attributing our successes to internal factors and our failures to external factors.
Self-Handicapping: Creating obstacles to protect oneself from the implications of failure.
Egocentric Bias: Overvaluing one's own contribution to shared activities.
Illusion of control: Overestimating one's control over events.

Reactions to Victims

Belief in a just world: a person believes that everyone gets what they deserve (a notion that can lead to problematic attributions).
Controllability: The degree to which someone believes they can control a condition.
Onset Responsibility: belief that someone is responsible for the onset of a condition.
Offset Responsibility: belief that someone is responsible for fixing a condition.

Attitude-Behavior Discrepancies

Stability of Attitudes: Attitudes change over time, so current attitudes don't always predict future behavior.
Strength of Attitudes: Strong attitudes influence behavior more often.
Relevance of Attitudes: Attitudes relevant to a particular situation predict behavior.
Salience of Attitudes: More salient attitudes have more influence.

Social Influence: The effects of others on one's beliefs and behaviors.
Conformity: Changing behaviors to be like those around you (e.g., Sherif, Asch).
Compliance: Agreeing to a request (e.g., foot in the door, door in the face, low-balling, that's not all).
Obedience: Following orders from an authority figure (e.g., Milgram).
Autokinetic effect: An optical illusion where a stationary point of light appears to move due to the observer's perception.
Informational Influence: Conformity stemming from the desire to be correct (e.g. group has knowledge).
Confederate or Actor: someone acting to influence participant.
Normative Influence: Conformity to gain approval (e.g. peer pressure).
Cohesive Group: A group highly committed.
Group Unanimity: A dissenting view reduces conformity.
Dissenter: someone who disagrees or opposes.
Minority Influence: A dissenting minority can sometimes lead to change.
Mindlessness: Complying without thought.

Bases of social power: rewards, coercion, information, etc.
Referent Power: People want to be like others.
Foot-in-the-door: Starting with a small request to increase likelihood of agreeing to a large one.
Door-in-the-face: Starting with a very large request to increase likelihood of agreeing to a smaller one.
Low-balling: Making a commitment less attractive to gain compliance once commitment is made.
That's-not-all: Adding extras (bonuses) to increase likelihood of agreeing.
Reactance: Wanting to maintain autonomy when compliance is pressured.
Overjustification: Extrinsic rewards can undermine intrinsic motivation.
Milgram Obedience Study: Research on obedience to authority.

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Description

Explore the key concepts in social psychology, including the matching principle, intrapersonal and interpersonal phenomena, and group dynamics. Additionally, understand important research methods such as independent and dependent variables, and the difference between confirmatory and exploratory research. Test your knowledge with this engaging quiz.