Questions and Answers
Which type of receptor is primarily responsible for detecting temperature changes?
What is the primary function of nociceptors?
Which sense is considered a special sense?
Which cells are primarily responsible for bone resorption?
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How do tonic receptors differ from phasic receptors?
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Which of the following conditions is characterized by a deficiency in growth hormone in children?
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What is the primary cause of Graves Disease?
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Which enzyme is responsible for converting androgens into estrogens?
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Excess cortisol in the body is associated with which syndrome?
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In secondary hypothyroidism, which gland is primarily affected?
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Which condition is caused by a deficiency of antidiuretic hormone (ADH) or insensitivity of the kidneys to ADH?
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Which of these elements is primarily found in organic molecules?
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What is the main monomer of nucleic acids?
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Which of the following is an example of secondary structure in proteins?
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Which of the following terms refers to programmed cell death?
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Which of these is NOT a major chemical bond?
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An increase in cell size is referred to as:
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A well-substantiated explanation of an aspect of the natural world is known as:
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Which mode of cell transport requires energy?
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Which part of the ear is responsible for differentiating sound frequencies?
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What is the perception of frequency known as?
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Which cranial nerves are involved in the taste pathways?
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Which device is used to treat sensorineural hearing loss?
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Where does the auditory pathway project in the brain?
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How is tinnitus characterized?
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Which of the following hormones is produced by the posterior pituitary gland?
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What characteristic is true about steroid hormones?
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Which of the following hormone types enhances the effect of another hormone?
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Where are peptide hormones often synthesized as prohormones?
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Which of the following hormones is involved in the H-P-A axis?
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What is the role of the H-P-G axis?
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What does upregulation of receptors mean?
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Which of the following hormones is produced by the hypothalamus?
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Which type of lenses is used to correct myopia?
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What is the function of the otoliths in the human body?
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Glaucoma is primarily caused by which of the following?
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What do rods in the eye primarily detect?
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How is the cornea nourished?
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What is necessary for the synthesis and function of rhodopsin?
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What causes Tay-Sachs disease?
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Where does the Krebs cycle take place in the cell?
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Which type of cell junction contains claudins and occludins?
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What is produced during glycolysis?
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Which molecule is a direct input for the citric acid cycle?
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Where are beta cells located?
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Which of the following is a property of enzymes?
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What role does glucagon play in glucose regulation?
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How do Type I and Type II diabetes primarily differ?
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What is the primary function of mitochondria in cells?
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Which element is true about prions?
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What is the characteristic feature of trans fatty acids?
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What is the main function of ribosomes in the cell?
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Which process allows the cell to transport water?
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Study Notes
Special and Somatic Senses
- Special senses include vision, hearing, taste, smell, and equilibrium, while somatic senses include touch, temperature, pain, and proprioception.
- There are different types of receptors in the body, such as mechanoreceptors, thermoreceptors, nociceptors, photoreceptors, and chemoreceptors.
- Each sensory neuron has a receptive field where it can detect stimuli.
Tonic vs. Phasic Receptors
- Tonic receptors are slowly adapting, while phasic receptors are rapidly adapting.
- Nociceptors are pain receptors.
Endocrine System
- Primary hypothyroidism originates in the endocrine gland itself, while secondary hypothyroidism originates in the pituitary gland.
- Aromatase converts androgens into estrogens.
- Graves' disease is an autoimmune disorder leading to hyperthyroidism.
- Acromegaly, dwarfism, and gigantism are caused by excess or deficiency of growth hormone in adults and children, respectively.
- Cushing's syndrome and Addison's disease are caused by excess and insufficient cortisol, respectively.
- Primary and secondary hypothyroidism are caused by thyroid gland dysfunction and pituitary gland dysfunction, respectively.
- Diabetes insipidus is caused by a deficiency of ADH or kidney insensitivity to ADH.
- Hormones are metabolized and excreted after their effects.
- Genomic effects of hormones involve changes in gene expression and are usually slower.
Auditory System
- Pitch is perceived based on frequency, while loudness is perceived based on amplitude.
- Tinnitus is the perception of noise or ringing in the ears without external sound.
- The cochlea in the inner ear differentiates frequencies.
- Conductive, sensorineural, and mixed are types of hearing loss, and treatments include hearing aids, cochlear implants, and surgery.
Organic Molecules
- Organic molecules are compounds primarily made of carbon atoms bonded with hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and other elements.
- Monomers or units of biomolecules include amino acids for proteins, fatty acids and glycerol for fats, monosaccharides for carbohydrates, and nucleotides for nucleic acids.
Protein Structure
- Primary structure is the sequence of amino acids, secondary structure is the folding into alpha-helices and beta-sheets, tertiary structure is the three-dimensional shape, and quaternary structure is the assembly of multiple polypeptide chains.
- Protein denaturation is the loss of native structure, leading to loss of function.
Cell Biology
- Hypertrophy is an increase in cell size, while hyperplasia is an increase in cell number.
- Necrosis is unplanned cell death due to injury, while apoptosis is programmed cell death.
- Different modes of cell transport include passive transport, active transport, facilitated diffusion, osmosis, endocytosis, and exocytosis.
Hormonal Actions
- Hormones can regulate metabolism, and lipophobic or hydrophilic proteins can have pre-hormones.
- Steroid hormones are hydrophobic and synthesized in the adrenal cortex, gonads, and placenta.
- Prohormones are precursors to hormones, and peptide hormones are often synthesized as prohormones.
- Anterior pituitary hormones include ACTH, TSH, GH, PRL, FSH, and LH, while posterior pituitary hormones include ADH and oxytocin.
Endocrine Axes
- H-P-G axis regulates reproductive processes, H-P-A axis manages stress response, and H-P-T axis controls metabolism.
- Half-life of a hormone is the time it takes for half of the hormone's concentration to be eliminated from the bloodstream.
- Upregulation increases the number of receptors, while downregulation decreases the number of receptors.
- Trophic hormones stimulate other glands to release hormones, permissive hormones enhance the effect of another hormone, antagonist hormones oppose each other's actions, and synergist hormones work together for a greater effect.
Human Eye
- Rods and cones are photoreceptors located in the retina, and they detect linear acceleration and head position.
- Focal point in the eye is where light rays converge on the retina.
- Vision defects and corrective lenses include myopia (concave lenses), hyperopia (convex lenses), and astigmatism (cylindrical lenses).
- Causes of glaucoma include increased intraocular pressure damaging the optic nerve.
- Rhodopsin is a pigment in rods, and Vitamin A is essential for its synthesis and function.
Cell Biology
- Tay-Sachs disease is a genetic disorder caused by the absence of a vital enzyme, leading to lipid accumulation in the brain.
- Aerobic respiration occurs in the mitochondria, while anaerobic respiration occurs in the cytoplasm.
- Glycolysis is the breakdown of glucose to pyruvate, producing ATP.
- Cell junctions include tight junctions, desmosomes, and gap junctions, with components like claudins, cadherins, and connexins.
Physiology of Diabetes
- Type I diabetes is caused by autoimmune destruction of insulin-producing beta cells, while Type II diabetes is caused by insulin resistance and eventual beta-cell dysfunction.
- Insulin lowers blood glucose levels by promoting glucose uptake, while glucagon raises blood glucose levels by promoting glucose release from the liver.
Prions and Isotopes
- Prions are misfolded proteins that cause neurodegenerative diseases.
- Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons.
Cell Transport
- Water is transported through osmosis, ions through ion channels and pumps, big molecules through endocytosis and exocytosis, and small molecules through diffusion and facilitated diffusion.
Enzymes
- Enzymes are catalysts that speed up reactions, are specific, reusable, and sensitive to conditions.
- Amylase breaks down starch.
HeLa Cell Lines
- HeLa cells are an immortal cell line derived from cervical cancer cells.
Cell Membrane
- The cell membrane regulates entry and exit of substances, is made of lipid bilayer with proteins, and membrane proteins have transport, signaling, and structural support functions.
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Description
Explore the different types of sensory receptors, including mechanoreceptors and nociceptors, and learn about the receptive field of sensory neurons and tonic vs. phasic receptors.
