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Questions and Answers
What is the primary function of the sensation process?
Which of the following best describes perception?
What is a major limitation of the template matching model in object recognition?
What does the feature analysis model fail to explain?
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In artificial neural networks, what do the weights represent?
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How does a multilayered neural network produce its final output?
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What is the purpose of back propagation in training neural networks?
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Why might increasing the number of hidden layers in a neural net be detrimental?
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Which of the following is NOT a physiological or neurological way to measure attention?
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What is the primary outcome of change blindness?
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Which statement about divided attention is correct?
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What is a disadvantage of automatic processing?
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Which of the following best describes bottleneck theories of attention?
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In feature integration theory, when is attention required to be serially processed?
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What distinguishes automatic processing from controlled processing?
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Which of the following is an example of orienting response?
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What is the main characteristic of bottom-up processing?
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Which of the following describes the Pygmalion effect?
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What are the three types of perceptual constancies?
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What does light constancy refer to?
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Which condition is characterized by the inability to recognize faces?
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What does unilateral spatial neglect result from?
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Which statement best describes blindsight?
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What does the Mozart Effect suggest about music?
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What is the primary benefit of allowing children with ADHD to wiggle and fidget during cognitive tests?
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What is the main purpose of neurofeedback?
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How does television watching potentially affect attention problems in children?
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What impact does sleep deprivation have on the prefrontal cortex?
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What does sleep debt refer to?
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What is the primary biological function of the glymphatic system during sleep?
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During which part of the sleep cycle do most dreams occur?
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What is the psychological phenomenon of anosognosia?
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Who is more likely to be susceptible to hypnosis?
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What is the hidden observer phenomenon in hypnosis?
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What are the positive effects of LSD?
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What is a potential negative effect of MDMA?
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Which of the following is true about psilocybin?
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Which brain structure is involved in emotional regulation during pain control?
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What type of receptors does MDMA impact?
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Study Notes
Sensation vs Perception
- Sensation is the process of our sensory receptors and nervous system converting stimulus energies from the environment into neural impulses.
- Perception is the process of interpreting and organizing sensory information through previous knowledge.
Early Models of Object Perception
- Template Matching (Exemplar Approach): Comparing incoming sensory information to stored templates, but struggles to account for complexities and flexibility of object recognition, such as differences in handwriting.
- Feature Analysis (Feature Approach): Decomposing objects into simpler features, but has difficulty recognizing complex objects with moving features.
- Prototype (Prototype Approach): Comparing to an average or ideal representation of an object category, but lacks an explanation for recognizing distorted or unique instances.
- Recognition-by-Components: Decomposing objects into volumetric primitives called geons, which are recognized regardless of viewpoint and used to build up object representations.
Artificial Neural Networks
- Structure: Neurons are represented as nodes, and weights represent connections between nodes, similar to inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSPs) and excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs).
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Processing:
- The first layer of nodes represents input data (e.g., pixel values), with activation levels ranging from 0 (no activation) to 1 (fully activated).
- Subsequent layers extract increasingly complex features, with activation levels determined by the weighted sum of activations from previous layers.
- The final layer represents output categories (e.g., digit recognition), with the node with the highest activation level representing the network's "answer."
Multilayered Neural Networks Training
- Backpropagation: Weights of connections between nodes are adjusted during training, allowing the network to learn from errors and improve its accuracy.
Overfitting in Neural Networks
- Increasing the number of hidden layers can lead to overfitting, where the network becomes too specialized on the training data and struggles to generalize to new data.
Bottom-Up vs Top-Down Processing
- **Bottom-up processing (Data-Driven): ** Analysis begins with sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information. Incoming information from the outside world.
- **Top-Down Processing (Concept-Driven): ** Information processing guided by our beliefs, expectations, and memories. Information from our minds
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy & Pygmalion Effect
- Self-fulfilling prophecy: Our beliefs shape our experiences and perceptions.
- Pygmalion effect: People's expectations influence their performance. For example, children randomly labeled as "spurters" showed greater increases in IQ scores.
Perceptual Constancies
- Shape constancy: Perceiving an object as having a constant shape even when its retinal image changes.
- Lightness constancy: Perceiving an object as having a constant lightness even when its illumination varies.
- Size-distance constancy: Perceiving an object as having a constant size even when its distance from us varies.
Modular Processing & Associated Conditions
- Modular processing: Specialized information processing modules that respond automatically.
- Prosopagnosia: Inability to recognize faces.
- Visual agnosia: Inability to recognize objects.
- Unilateral spatial neglect: Ignoring the left side of space due to damage to the right parietal and frontal lobes, often caused by stroke.
- Blindsight: People who are blind have some spared visual capacities in the absence of any visual awareness.
Attention
- Cocktail-party effect: The ability to focus on a specific conversation amidst other conversations. This demonstrates that our brains filter information, with only a small portion reaching conscious awareness.
Measuring Attention
- Neuro correlates (ERP and PET activation): Electrical and metabolic activity in brain regions associated with attention, such as the anterior and posterior regions.
- Orienting response (heart rate and galvanic skin response): Changes in physiological responses, such as increased heart rate and skin conductance, indicating attention to a stimulus.
- Pupil dilation: Increase in pupil size, indicating focused attention.
- Eye movements: Shifting of gaze towards the object of attention.
Change Blindness
- Failing to notice changes in the environment, suggesting our brains strive for object constancy even in the face of changing sensory input.
Divided Attention & Processing
- Automatic processing: Efficient and allows multitasking. Easy or habitual tasks.
- Controlled processing: Requires effort and serial processing. Hard tasks.
Theories of Attention
- Bottleneck theories of attention: Limit the quantity of information we attend to at any given time.
- Automatic vs. Controlled processing: Automatic for easy tasks, controlled for challenging tasks.
- Feature-integration theory: Attention must be serially processed when characterizing objects with separable features (focused attention). Single features can be recognized automatically and in parallel (distributed attention).
ADHD & Attention
- Children with ADHD show more wiggling and fidgeting, which correlates with better performance on cognitive tests, suggesting a heightened need for physical activity.
Biofeedback & Neurofeedback
- Biofeedback: Training to control autonomic processes, such as heart rate, to address conditions like ADHD.
- Neurofeedback: Form of biofeedback using devices (EEG, fMRI) to provide feedback about brain activity in an effort to modify behavior.
- Neurofeedback for ADHD: Increased activation in the right inferior frontal cortex (using fMRI neurofeedback) may improve ADHD symptoms.
TV & Attention
- TV viewing may contribute to attention problems due to its reliance on bottom-up processing, where external stimuli rather than internal focus drive attention.
Sleep Deprivation & Cognition
- Sleep deprivation impairs the prefrontal cortex, leading to negative impacts on attention, memory, decision-making, and the ability to make broad connections.
- Adolescents are particularly vulnerable to the effects of sleep deprivation, facing risks of high blood pressure, heart disease, diabetes, depression, and car accidents.
Sleep Debt
- The cumulative lack of sleep over time.
Neurophysiological Functions of Sleep
- Consolidation of memories.
- Rest and restoration.
- Flushing out of toxins through the glymphatic system.
Glymphatic System
- Pushes cerebrospinal fluid through the brain to flush out toxins, specifically removing damaging molecules during sleep.
REM Sleep & Dreams
- Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep is the stage of sleep where vivid dreams are most likely to occur, although dreaming can also happen in non-REM sleep.
Theories of Dreams
- Neural Integration: Exchange and integration of neural signals as the basis of phenomenal consciousness.
- Neural Complexity: Consciousness arising from neural complexity and integration.
Split Brain & Consciousness
- Split brain research suggests that consciousness involves the verbal mechanisms located in the left cerebral hemisphere.
Anosognosia
- Denial of illness.
Hypnosis
- Individuals with rich fantasy lives and strong imaginations are generally more susceptible to hypnosis.
Hypnosis Applications
- Recovering memories.
- Treating physical disorders.
- Pain control in childbirth (hypnobirthing), potentially by regulating the emotional component of pain in the anterior cingulate and prefrontal cortex.
Hidden Observer in Hypnosis
- A dissociated part of the hypnotized person that remains aware of the situation.
Hallucinogens
- LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide)
- MDMA (methylenedioxymethamphetamine or ecstasy)
- Psilocybin (magic mushrooms)
LSD
- Stimulates serotonergic and dopaminergic receptors.
- Potential benefits include reduced anxiety and dissolving boundaries between self and the world.
- Risks include panic attacks, flashbacks, and potential for psychotic breaks.
MDMA
- Releases serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine, while blocking their reuptake.
- May provide emotional elevation, and has shown promise in treating PTSD.
- Risks include dehydration, overheating, and damage to serotonin production, which can lead to depression and memory impairments.
Psilocybin
- Stimulates serotonin receptors.
- Positive experiences include euphoria, spiritual experiences, and hallucinations.
- Negative effects include nausea, panic attacks, and the potential for psychotic episodes.
Anterior Cingulate Cortex Function
- The anterior cingulate cortex plays a crucial role in processing emotional information, regulating behavior, and managing pain.
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Description
Explore the fundamental concepts of sensation and perception, focusing on how our sensory receptors transform stimuli into neural impulses and the interpretation of this information. Additionally, dive into early models of object perception, including template matching, feature analysis, and recognition-by-components.
