Research Theories and Manuscripts

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Questions and Answers

What is the primary purpose of a blind review for manuscripts?

To reduce bias in the evaluation process (correct)

To ensure authors are recognized for their contributions

To provide a public forum for manuscripts

To allow authors to influence the reviewers

Which of the following is NOT a standard for judging the strength of a theory?

Falsifiability

Parsimony

Generalizability (correct)

Explanatory relevance

How do theories and hypotheses primarily differ?

Theories provide explanations for phenomena, while hypotheses are testable predictions (correct)

Hypotheses are broader concepts than theories

Theories can be directly tested, while hypotheses cannot

Hypotheses offer explanations, whereas theories are descriptive

What is a key characteristic of a strong scientific theory regarding accountability?

It must account for most of the existing data within its domain Signup and view all the answers

What differentiates a research purpose from a research question?

Research purpose is about achieving specific outcomes, while research questions address specific concerns Signup and view all the answers

Which is a crucial aspect of a testable hypothesis?

It must have the potential to be falsified or disproven Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'parsimonious' imply in the context of a theory?

It uses the fewest and simplest assumptions necessary Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about a primary research source is accurate?

It originates from a peer-reviewed published journal Signup and view all the answers

What is a key characteristic of the deferred treatment control condition?

It avoids isolation by engaging participants in social activities. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements best differentiates comparison conditions from control conditions?

Control conditions typically have higher internal validity. Signup and view all the answers

What is a primary disadvantage of within-group repeated measures design?

It may introduce treatment order effects across assessments. Signup and view all the answers

How do single-subject designs relate to small N designs?

Both focus on individual behavior and outcomes. Signup and view all the answers

What method can be used to control for treatment order effects in a within-group repeated measures design?

Using a washout period between treatments. Signup and view all the answers

What ensures that researchers can attribute effects to the group communication treatment in a deferred treatment design?

Preselected social group activities limit confounding factors. Signup and view all the answers

Which type of design is preferred for assessing the effects of two treatments on the same group of participants?

Within-group repeated measures design. Signup and view all the answers

What ethical concern does the deferred treatment design address?

It ensures that no participant is denied access to treatment. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of experimental control of variables in research?

To establish causal relationships and enhance internal validity Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes an independent variable?

A variable that is presumed to influence behavior Signup and view all the answers

What is a confounding variable?

An extraneous variable that influences the independent variable's effect on the dependent variable Signup and view all the answers

Why are extraneous variables considered nuisance factors in research?

They can create variance in the dependent variable that is unrelated to the independent variable Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following options represents a controlled variable?

A variable that is kept constant to reduce its effect Signup and view all the answers

What is a dependent variable in research?

The outcome or behavior that is measured Signup and view all the answers

In the context of PICO, which arrangement correctly places the elements?

Population, Intervention, Comparison, Outcome Signup and view all the answers

When developing a research question, why is it important to include all four PICO elements?

It ensures comprehensive evaluation of the study Signup and view all the answers

What is a primary characteristic of a within-subject comparative design study?

Each participant serves as their own baseline. Signup and view all the answers

What does a time-series experimental design primarily focus on?

Measuring the dependent variable over time through repeated assessments. Signup and view all the answers

In the context of experimental control, why is having more data points in a baseline phase considered better?

It improves experimental control and internal validity. Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes time series phases from conditions in experimental design?

Phases assess changes over time; conditions compare different levels of the independent variable. Signup and view all the answers

In an ABAB design, what does the second 'A' phase signify?

Return to baseline conditions. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a requirement for conducting a valid single-subject experimental design?

At least 2 participants. Signup and view all the answers

What does it mean for a participant to be their own control in a single-subject experimental design?

The participant's performance is observed before and after a treatment. Signup and view all the answers

Why is scripted protocol followed in studies like Meadan et al. (2006)?

To establish a consistent framework for data collection. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary focus of consensus scoring?

Enhancing accuracy through collaborative discussion Signup and view all the answers

Why is point-by-point agreement preferred over total score agreement?

It helps identify specific areas of disagreement. Signup and view all the answers

What constitutes a minimum acceptable level of inter-rater agreement?

Greater than 80% Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best defines treatment fidelity?

The extent to which a treatment is delivered as intended Signup and view all the answers

What approach can researchers take if scoring reliability is low?

Retrain the raters and simplify the scoring system Signup and view all the answers

How did Ukrainetz et al. (2009) assess treatment fidelity in their phonemic awareness treatment?

By judging content and schedule adherence Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the relationship between accuracy and reliability in scoring?

Improving accuracy does not ensure reliability. Signup and view all the answers

What would indicate a successful point-by-point agreement score?

An 80% agreement score or higher Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Manuscripts

Peer-reviewed manuscripts are evaluated by experts in the field and revised by authors until they are satisfactory for publication.
This system promotes quality research and reporting.
It safeguards against poor research, trivial problems, and unclear writing.

Theories

A theory is a formal representation of data reduced to a minimal number of terms used to identify and outline cause-and-effect relationships.
Theories summarize and organize existing knowledge, creating a framework for meaningful generalizations.
Theories are established through empirical and rational inquiry.

Judging the Strength of a Theory

Accountability: A theory should account for most of the existing data within its domain.
Explanatory Relevance: The explanation provided by a theory must offer good grounds for believing that the phenomenon would occur under the specified conditions of the theory.
Testability: A theory should be potentially falsifiable.
Predictive Power: A theory should be able to predict new findings beyond those used to develop it.
Parsimony: A theory should adopt the fewest and/or simplest set of assumptions in the interpretation of data (Occam's razor).

Theories vs. Hypotheses

Theories attempt to explain problems.
Hypotheses are testable versions of theories, proposed answers to testable research questions.

Study Purpose vs. Research Question

The study purpose is a clear statement of what you are trying to achieve through your research.
The research question is a specific concern you will answer through your research.

PICO Elements

P: Population (e.g., at-risk kindergarteners)
I: Intervention (e.g., concentrated schedule of treatment)
C: Comparison (e.g., dispersed schedule of treatment)
O: Outcome (e.g., show different immediate or final outcomes in phonemic awareness)

Variables

A variable is a measurable characteristic that can vary or change.
Independent Variable: The presumed cause of the dependent variable (the presumed effect).
Dependent Variable: The behavior that is changed.
Extraneous Variable: An intervening factor that mediates the relationship between the independent and dependent variables.
Confounding Variable: An extraneous variable that influences the relationship between the independent and dependent variables, making the results equivocal.
Controlled Variable: An extraneous variable that is recognized and kept constant to minimize its effect on the outcome.

Experimental Control

Experimental control allows researchers to establish causal relationships between variables and reduce the influence of confounding variables.
It ensures that experiments can be replicated by other researchers to verify the results.
Experimental controls include:
- Participant assignment
- Treatment conditions received
- Treatment schedule
- Who teaches/administers the treatment
- Tester preparation
- Instructor preparation
- Treatment preparation
- Performance checks

Deferred Treatment Control Condition

A deferred treatment control condition delays treatment for the control group.
It addresses ethical concerns by avoiding withholding treatment from the control group.

Comparison vs. Control Condition

A comparison condition uses pre-existing data as the control.
A control condition has a more carefully chosen control group.
Control conditions provide stronger internal validity.

Within-Group Repeated Measures Design

This design compares two treatments within the same group of participants.
Each participant serves as their own control, receiving both treatments in different orders.
This design is better than a between-group design because it reduces variability between participants.

Single-Subject Designs

Also known as small-N designs, they may be applied to a single subject or a small number of subjects who are evaluated as separate individuals rather than as a group.

Time Series Experimental Design

A quasi-experimental design that uses repeated measurements of the dependent variable over an extended period of time.

Time Series Phases

Time series phases and conditions both categorize different segments of a study, but they have distinct conceptual foundations and are used in different types of research designs.
Phases are used to study changes over time.
Conditions are used to compare the effects of different levels of the independent variable.

Baseline Phase

Ideally, the baseline phase has 3+ data points to provide sufficient data to show a clear pattern across phases.
More data points within phases add experimental control and greater internal validity.

ABAB Design

The second A phase is a return to the baseline condition.
Researchers want to see performance drop in the second A phase to demonstrate the effectiveness of the treatment.

Consensus Scoring

A method for increasing accuracy in scoring by having multiple raters or observers discuss and collaborate to reach a consensus on ratings.

Point-by-Point Agreement

A reliability score that compares each individual section/question/point on a scoring instrument.
It is preferred over total score agreement because it helps identify specific areas of disagreement.
A rule-of-thumb minimum level of inter-rater agreement is greater than 80%.

Treatment Fidelity

The degree to which a treatment is delivered or implemented as intended.
It is important to report treatment fidelity, providing information on how closely the treatment was adhered to.

Improving Reliability

If scoring reliability is low, researchers can:
- Retrain raters
- Simplify the scoring system
- Clearly explain acceptable variations in scoring.

Best Primary Source

A top tier peer-reviewed published journal is considered the best primary source.

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Description

This quiz explores the essential elements of peer-reviewed manuscripts and the characteristics of effective theories. Understand the importance of accountability, explanatory relevance, and testability in evaluating theories. Test your knowledge on how these concepts contribute to quality research.