Exam II Review

What is the main purpose of Relative Risk in etiologic studies?

In the context provided, what does Attributable Risk measure?

If the attributable risk percentage for a certain disease is 80%, what does this imply?

Which term best describes the measure of how many deaths in a population would be prevented if a certain exposure was eliminated?

Why might there be fewer deaths prevented for lung cancer compared to CHD when smoking is eliminated, despite a higher proportion of deaths being attributed to smoking in lung cancer patients?

What does Attributable Risk measure?

How is Attributable Risk % calculated?

In calculating Population Attributable Risk, what does the term 'population' refer to?

What distinguishes Attributable Risk from Population Attributable Risk?

What does Population Attributable Risk % indicate?

What measure provides an indication of the magnitude of risk for a group of people with a certain exposure?

What is the formula to calculate the attributable risk percent?

What does population attributable risk represent?

Which measure indicates the likelihood of an individual in a population developing a certain disease?

What measure evaluates the proportion of disease incidence in a population that can be attributed to exposure?

What is the formula to calculate the attributable risk?

In the context provided, what does the rate of type 2 diabetes among individuals who are considered unexposed indicate?

Which measure provides information about the strength of association between exposure and disease?

What does the Population Attributable Risk % measure?

What does attributable risk measure?

Why might there be fewer deaths prevented for lung cancer compared to CHD if smoking was eliminated, despite a higher proportion of deaths being attributed to smoking in lung cancer patients?

In epidemiological studies, which measure of association is considered appropriate when individuals with or without the disease are recruited and then there is a retrospective assessment of exposure status?

Which study design can calculate both Relative Risk and Odds Ratio without the need to establish temporality?

If you think of a cohort study, which measure of association should come to mind?

Which measure of association can be calculated in both case control and cohort studies and does not require the establishment of temporality?

What does the 95% Confidence Interval help us understand in a study?

In the context of Relative Risk (RR), what does a 95% CI that includes the null value of 1.00 suggest?

What is the next step after estimating the Relative Risk (RR) for calculating the 95% Confidence Interval?

What does it mean when a Relative Risk (RR) value is reported as 2.1 with a 95% CI of (0.7-2.4)?

In the context of interpreting Odds Ratio (OR) matching on a third variable, what does 'matched OR' refer to?

In a matched case-control study, when are concordant pairs typically ignored?

What is the primary reason for matching cases to controls in a matched case-control study?

How are discordant pairs used in calculating the matched odds ratio in a matched case-control study?

Which statement best describes the calculation of a matched odds ratio in a case-control study?

What is a key advantage of using matched case-control pairs when calculating odds ratios?

What does the Odds Ratio in Case Control Studies compare?

How is the Odds Ratio calculated for a Case Control Disease?

In statistical terms, what does an Odds Ratio greater than 1 indicate?

What does a 95% Confidence Interval around an Odds Ratio that includes 1 suggest?

Which measure is used to evaluate the strength of association in matched case-control studies?

What type of bias occurs when the people included in a study are not representative of the population in terms of exposure or disease status?

In what scenario does selection bias occur due to a pre-existing relationship between the hypothesis?

What method assists in reducing selection bias related to differences in surveillance, diagnosis, or referral criteria for cases?

Which scenario is an example of information bias as opposed to selection bias?

What approach can help minimize information bias in an epidemiological study?

What type of bias occurs when the means for obtaining information about the subjects in a study are inadequate?

What type of misclassification bias is characterized by cases being misclassified as controls and exposed as non-exposed?

In a case-control study, what kind of bias might occur if interviewers have subconscious beliefs about the hypothesis?

What method can help minimize interviewer or recorder bias in a case-control study?

Which type of information bias is likely to occur if individuals with a particular outcome remember events more clearly or amplify their recollections?

What type of misclassification bias occurs when the rate of misclassification is different between groups?

How can selection bias be minimized in a study?

What is the primary way to avoid misclassification bias in a study?

What is the recommended approach to minimize information bias in studies?

What is the major difference between selection bias and information bias in epidemiological studies?

How can researchers minimize selection bias in epidemiological studies?

What is a common method to minimize information bias in epidemiological studies?

Why is it essential to consider both selection and information biases in epidemiological studies?

Which statement best describes the impact of selection bias on study outcomes?

In the context of reducing confounding, what method evaluates the relationship between exposure and outcome in homogenous categories?

Which method of controlling for confounding involves restricting enrollment to subjects who have specific values or ranges of the confounding variable?

What technique involves evaluating only non-exposed subjects who match those in the comparison group in terms of confounders?

Which scenario would potentially lead to residual confounding despite efforts to control for it?

What method involves randomly assigning study participants to exposure groups to minimize the impact of confounders?

Which term describes a scenario where the association between exposure and outcome changes when the effects of a third variable are taken into account?

What characterizes a variable as a confounder in a study?

When does confounding occur in a study?

What does interaction (effect measure modification) refer to in epidemiological studies?

Which factor plays a role in creating random error in study results?

Which term best describes a situation when the association between two variables is different at different levels of a third variable?

In epidemiologic studies, what effect can arise simply due to random variation?

What is the key problem that arises when confounders are not accounted for in the results and interpretation of a study?

If the observed Relative Risk (RR) is greater than the expected RR, it suggests the presence of:

What method can help reduce random variability in measurements and make clear the true association in a study?

Which statement about confounding is accurate?

What is the primary reason confounding occurs in epidemiological studies?

How do confounder criteria help identify a variable as a confounder?

In epidemiological terms, what does effect measure modification refer to?

Which scenario best describes chance in epidemiological studies?

What does the 10% rule of thumb in confounding suggest?

In the context of multiplicative interaction, what does a significant interaction term in regression analysis suggest?

What does it mean if after adjusting for a confounder, the association between exposure and outcome changes?

When conducting a stratified analysis, what is the purpose of examining measures of association within strata?

In multiple regression analysis, what does it indicate if including a confounder changes the relationship between exposure and outcome?

What is the main purpose of reducing confounding in epidemiologic studies?

How is stratified analysis helpful in epidemiology?

What does an adjusted measure of association help to achieve in epidemiologic studies?

In epidemiology, what does multiplicative interaction refer to?

What is the primary benefit of pooling stratum-specific estimates in epidemiologic studies when there is no interaction?

What is the primary purpose of addressing issues of confounding in epidemiological studies?

When do associations tend to arise simply due to random variation in a study?

What does it mean when the observed Relative Risk (RR) is greater than the expected RR in epidemiological studies?

How can chance be minimized in epidemiological studies?

What do large sample sizes provide in epidemiological studies compared to small sample sizes?

What does it indicate when the observed relative risk exceeds the expected relative risk?

In the context of epidemiological studies, what does the term 'multiplicative model' refer to?

What characteristic is associated with small studies with limited power in terms of chance occurrence?

If the expected relative risk is equal to the observed relative risk, what does this suggest about the interaction?

What does the observed relative risk being lower than expected relative risk indicate in terms of interaction?

What type of causal relationship involves a factor that without it, the disease never happens, and with it, the disease always happens?

Which of Hill's criteria for causation emphasizes that the factor must come before the outcome to establish causation?

In a causal relationship where neither Factor A nor Factor B alone causes the disease, but together they do, what type of relationship is this?

Which Hill's criterion focuses on the idea that a larger effect size strengthens the credibility of a causal relationship?

In assessing whether a risk factor is causal, which criterion examines whether the findings can be replicated in different study populations?

What is the main purpose of Austin Bradford Hill's Criteria for causation?

Which criteria from Hill's list are the ones that actually establish causation?

How can exposure be considered as potentially causal in relation to disease development?

What do temporality and latency of disease development emphasize in assessing causation?

What is a key consideration when using relative risk as a measure of association in epidemiological studies?

Which criterion of Hills Criteria for Causation emphasizes the concept that an exposure and outcome relationship should be consistently observed in different studies?

In epidemiology, what does the consideration of alternate explanations aim to achieve when establishing causation?

If the cessation of exposure leads to a decrease in the frequency of a disease, what aspect of Hills Criteria for Causation does this scenario support?

Which factor is considered when analyzing whether an association fits with existing biological knowledge in the context of establishing causation?

When using epidemiology to infer causal pathways in populations, what aspect is crucial even though it may not describe the cause for an individual case?

What does Hill's criteria for causation not establish?

Which of the following is a key aspect of establishing causation according to the text?

In the context of measuring causation, what does the succession of exposure refer to?

What is the primary purpose of critically examining a study according to the text?

When considering causation, what role does consistency with other knowledge play?

Which type of causal relationship involves a chain of events from factor exposure to the disease?

What is the term used for causes that must occur prior to the onset of a disease?

What does a direct causal relationship imply about intermediates?

When it comes to assessing causation, what is the role of necessary causes according to the text?

What differentiates indirect causal relationships from direct causal relationships?

How does the specificity of exposure relate to the likelihood of causation?

How does the temporality criterion contribute to establishing causation?

Which method can be used to measure temporality in epidemiological studies?

What is the significance of breaking down exposures into different categories?

In epidemiological studies, what type of exposures are more likely to be deemed causal?

What distinguishes an association from causation?

What is the primary challenge in establishing causation?

What type of studies can randomly assign animals to exposures for causation research?

Which term describes exposures linked to differences in disease risk?

What is the key implication of causation in the exposure-outcome relationship?

Why is it unethical to expose people to substances believed to cause harm?

Which term refers to the capacity of an infectious agent to enter and multiply in a susceptible host?

What characteristic of an infectious agent is indicated by the proportion of infected individuals with clinically apparent disease?

Which of the following best describes a measure of the severity of a disease after infection occurs?

What aspect of an infectious agent is characterized by the capacity to produce a toxin or poison?

Which factor plays a key role in determining the susceptibility of a host to infectious agents?

What aspect of an infectious agent is defined by its ability to induce antibody production in the host?

Which type of immunity protects the human body without prior exposure to a pathogen?

Which of the following best describes a host characteristic related to susceptibility due to genetics, resiliency, and behavioral factors?

In the context of infection concepts, what do you call an organism that takes the opportunity provided by a defect in the host defense to infect the host?

Which term describes the constant presence of a disease or infectious agent within a given geographic area or population?

What is the mode of transmission that involves inhalation of contaminated air?

Which characteristic of an infectious agent pertains to its ability to survive adverse environmental conditions?

What public health action aims to prevent and treat disease by genetically modifying the disease agent?

Which individual prevention measure is aimed at preventing vector-borne diseases through the use of physical, electronic, and chemical barriers?

In the epidemiologic triangle, which component is influenced by factors such as climate, building design, and sanitation?

Which factor is most critical for the disease agent in the Epidemiologic Triangle?

What is the primary mode of transmission for Treponema pallidum?

Which host characteristic makes individuals less susceptible to disease?

What is a common prevention measure for Yersinia pestis infection?

In the Epidemiologic Triangle, what aspect of the environment plays a crucial role in disease transmission?

What is the purpose of conducting a secondary attack rate calculation in an outbreak investigation?

Which factor is NOT a difficulty encountered when investigating cancer clusters?

In epidemiologic studies, what does the Attack Rate measure?

Which characteristic is NOT typical of cases representing a cancer cluster?

What is the primary benefit of establishing a case definition during an outbreak investigation?

What is the main purpose of surveillance of infectious diseases?

In the context of epidemic curves, what does a propagated curve represent?

What defines a cluster in epidemiology?

Which factor triggers an epidemic according to the text?

What distinguishes a point source epidemic curve from other types?

Which of the following correctly describes the incubation period of infectious diseases?

What is the primary mode of transmission for carbuncles, syphilis, and gonorrhea?

Which disease is associated with conjunctival exudate as a portal of exit?

For which infectious disease, the portal of entry is most likely through skin (broken)?

Which infectious disease is correctly matched with its respective trimester of perinatal infection transmission?

In epidemiological terms, what does 'TORCH' refer to regarding perinatal infections?

What level of infection involves the entry and development of an infectious agent in the body?

Which mode of transmission is characteristic of rabies and tularemia?

What host characteristic is important for diseases like carbuncles and syphilis that are transmitted through direct contact?

In terms of prevention measures, which mode of transmission would be targeted by improving sanitation and personal hygiene?

Which term best describes the constant presence of a disease or infectious agent within a given geographic area or population?

What is the term used to describe the unusual occurrence of a disease in a community that is considered an excess of the expected occurrence?

In epidemiology, what is the term for immunity that occurs when epidemics happen on several continents?

What measure evaluates the average number of secondary infections resulting from a single index case during an epidemic?

Which term refers to an organism that infects the host and causes disease by taking advantage of defects in the host's defense mechanisms?

In epidemiology, what is the main difference between an outbreak and a cluster?

What defines a propagated epidemic curve in epidemiology?

What triggers an epidemic according to the text?

What is the primary objective of outbreak investigation in epidemiology?

How is surveillance of infectious diseases defined according to the provided text?

What is the purpose of assessing the infectivity of an infectious disease agent through secondary attack rate?

Which factor is NOT a difficulty encountered when investigating cancer clusters?

What does the Attack Rate measure in epidemiology?

What is the primary purpose of generating and testing hypotheses in outbreak investigations?

How are secondary attack rates calculated in epidemiological investigations?

What is the primary factor affecting host susceptibility in the Epidemiologic Triangle?

Which of the following diseases has an incubation period of 1-3 weeks and is transmitted via person-to-person contact?

What is a common feature of disease agents that contribute to virulence in the Epidemiologic Triangle?

Which disease had one of the largest public health burdens during the 16th-19th centuries?

In the context of emerging infectious diseases, which environmental factor is crucial in determining disease transmission?

Which of the following is a correct statement regarding the relative risk (RR)?

What does it mean when there is a 10% difference in the crude and factor-adjusted measure of association?

In epidemiology, what term describes a situation where the association between two variables changes at different levels of a third variable?

What signifies the presence of synergistic interaction between two exposures in an epidemiological study?

Which Hill’s criterion does NOT establish causation but rather explains it?

What type of relationship exists if the observed measure of association for two exposures is less than the expected product of the two measures of association of both exposures individually?

'Regression to the mean' refers to:

'Investigators have no strategies available to them to reduce the occurrence of chance associations that appear simply due to random variation in the study.' - This statement is:

What is the term for the unusual occurrence of a disease in a community that is considered in excess of the expected?

Which factor is NOT involved in infectious disease emergence according to the text?

What is the term for the capacity of an infectious agent to survive adverse environmental conditions?

Which measure is used to assess the pathogenicity of an infectious disease agent?

What concept does innate immunity provide protection against according to the text?

Which of the following is NOT a component included in the epidemiologic triangle used for infectious disease epidemiology?

What is the term used to describe the ability of an infectious agent to survive adverse environmental conditions?

Which component of the epidemiologic triangle is NOT included for infectious disease epidemiology?

What is the purpose of a cluster in epidemiology?

Which type of epidemic involves exposures occurring over a relatively brief period?

What is one factor involved in the emergence of infectious diseases?

What do sanitation measures primarily aim to prevent?

'Almost all infections are clinical and will result in severe symptoms.' - This statement is:

'Cancer clusters are one of the most simpler types of outcomes to investigate.' - This statement is:

Which of the following describes an instance of interaction or effect modification?

What is the significance of calculating the expected product of two measures of association in epidemiological studies?

Which of Hill's criteria is involved in simply explaining causation without establishing it?

In epidemiology, what method do investigators have at their disposal to minimize the occurrence of chance associations?

When considering measures of association, what does a 10% difference between crude and factor-adjusted measures indicate?

Which situation is indicative of synergistic interaction between two exposures in an epidemiological study?

'Investigators have no strategies available to them' to reduce what aspect in epidemiological studies?