Psychology Lecture 01: Types of Differences

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Questions and Answers

What is the primary focus of differential psychology?

The analysis of behavioral genetics

The investigation of environmental influences on behavior

The examination of intraindividual differences

The study of individual and group differences (correct)

What is the term for enduring patterns of behavior and thought that are relatively consistent over time and across various situations?

Factor

Type

Disposition

Trait (correct)

What is the term for the expression of an individual's genes in behavioral traits that can be measured?

Heritability

Genotype

Phenotype (correct)

Phenotypic variance

What is the term for a statistical indicator of the influence of genetic factors on individual differences in behavioral traits?

Heritability estimate Signup and view all the answers

What type of study compares pairs of people with different degrees of relatedness?

Family studies Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for differences that are observed within the same person when they are assessed at different times or in different situations?

Intraindividual differences Signup and view all the answers

What is the equation that represents the relationship between behavior, genetic influences, and environmental influences?

B = f(GxE) Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for a continuum from minimum to maximum intensity of a given feature?

Dimension Signup and view all the answers

What is the origin of the term 'extraversion-introversion'?

From Jung Signup and view all the answers

What is the main focus of the causal approach to temperament?

Neurophysiological interpretation of primary-secondary function Signup and view all the answers

What is the essential element of the theory that is related to the structure of temperament?

Temperamental structure can be described by several independent factors Signup and view all the answers

What does Eysenck equate with the biological aspects of personality?

Temperament Signup and view all the answers

What is the level of theoretical constructs in Eysenck's personality structure model?

L1 Signup and view all the answers

What is the level of traits resulting from the interaction of genotype and environment in Eysenck's personality structure model?

Primary traits Signup and view all the answers

What determines an individual's characteristic way of behaving, especially towards other people, according to Eysenck?

Temperament Signup and view all the answers

What is the difference between personality and temperament, according to Eysenck?

Personality is cognitive, while temperament is non-cognitive Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary characteristic of extraversion?

A quality and quantity of social interactions, level of activity, and ability to feel positive emotions Signup and view all the answers

What is the opposite of neuroticism?

Emotional balance Signup and view all the answers

According to the activation theory, what is responsible for individual differences in extraversion-introversion?

The ascending reticular activating system (ARAS) Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the enduring characteristics and behavior that comprise a person's unique adjustment to life?

Personality Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a characteristic of introverts?

Higher academic achievement than extroverts Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the dimension of personality that describes an individual's tendency to seek and positively evaluate life experiences?

Openness to experience Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the physiological basis of extraversion, according to the inhibition theory?

The cortical excitation/inhibition processes Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the dimension of personality that reflects emotional adjustment vs emotional imbalance?

Neuroticism Signup and view all the answers

Which region has a similar score to Eastern Europe in terms of Agreeableness?

Southern Europe Signup and view all the answers

What is the approximate score of Conscientiousness in South America?

3.5 Signup and view all the answers

Which region has the lowest score in Openness?

South/SE Asia Signup and view all the answers

What is the approximate score of Neuroticism in Western Europe?

3.0 Signup and view all the answers

Which region has a higher score in Agreeableness compared to Eastern Europe?

Western Europe Signup and view all the answers

Which region has a similar score to Middle East in terms of Openness?

Southern Europe Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of strong excitation in the nervous system?

It indicates a robust capacity for neural activity Signup and view all the answers

What is the outcome of robust neural activity?

Gain of conditioned responses or generalization of a conditioned response Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the nervous system property mentioned in the content?

To enable nervous cells to work together Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of the strength of inhibition in the nervous system?

It is important for conditioned inhibition, including extinction, differentiation, and delay Signup and view all the answers

What is the outcome of conditioned inhibition?

The suppression or control of responses Signup and view all the answers

What is the relationship between the strength of excitation and conditioned responses?

Strong excitation is necessary for the formation and generalization of conditioned responses Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic of the nervous system's ability to work together?

It is a robust capacity for neural activity Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of the nervous system's ability to suppress or control responses?

It is important for conditioned inhibition, including extinction, differentiation, and delay Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Types of Differences

Interindividual differences: variations between individuals in one or more traits, behaviors, or characteristics
Intraindividual differences: differences that are observed within the same person when they are assessed at different times or in different situations

Important Terms

Trait: enduring patterns of behavior and thought that are relatively consistent over time and across various situations
Factor: a more-or-less enduring psychological characteristic that distinguishes one person from another and thus helps to define each person's individuality
Dimension: a continuum from minimum to maximum intensity of a given feature
Disposition: a construct used to describe the stability of human behavior over time
Type: the dominant quality or qualities distinguishing a person or a group

Behavioral Genetics

Study of the biological basis of individual differences
B = f(GxE): behavior is a function of the interaction between genetic and environmental influences
Phenotype: the expression of an individual's genes in behavioral traits that can be measured
Phenotypic variance: the variation in behavioral traits that can be attributed to genetic and environmental influences
Heritability estimate: a statistical indicator of the influence of genetic factors on individual differences in behavioral traits

Family Studies

Comparing pairs of people with different degrees of relatedness
Child shares genes (G) and environment (E) with parents

Temperament

Has a biological basis
Universally present
Structured by several independent factors (e.g. extroversion, neuroticism, psychoticism)
According to Eysenck, personality and temperament are synonymous, with temperament referring to the non-cognitive aspects of personality

Personality Structure Model

Level of theoretical constructs (genotype) [L1]
Level of phenomena that can be observed in laboratory conditions [L2]
Level of traits resulting from the interaction of genotype and environment [L3]

Dimensions of Personality

Extraversion: consists of features such as sociability, liveliness, activity, assertiveness, and sensation seeking
Neuroticism: consists of features such as anxiety, depression, guilt, low self-esteem, and tension
Psychoticism: directly related to pathology, including crime, psychopathy, and schizophrenia

Conditioning

Introverts: generally easier to condition with unconditional stimuli of punitive nature
Extroverts: generally faster to condition with unconditional stimuli of rewarding nature

Critical Remarks

Undermining the primacy of dimensions of E and N
Deviations in circadian patterns (I - higher arousal in the morning, E - higher arousal in the evening)
Different levels of activity during the day

Inhibition Theory (Extraversion)

Postulates: individuals differ in the speed and strength with which excitation and inhibition arise and in the speed with which inhibition disappears
Individuals with weak, slowly developed excitation potential, with quickly rising strong reactive inhibition that disappears slowly, are predisposed to extraverted behavior patterns

Activation Theory (Extraversion)

Source: the reticular system of the brain stem produces non-specific activation called cortical excitation, which is expressed in spontaneous electrical potentials of the brain
The ascending reticular activating system (ARAS) is responsible for individual differences in E-I, which regulates the level of cortical activation in response to external and internal stimuli

Introduction to Personality

Enduring characteristics and behavior that comprise a person's unique adjustment to life
Construct used in order to explain the structure and development of personality

Allport Definition of Personality

Dynamic organization within an individual, including mental systems that determine the individual's specific ways of adapting to the environment

Studies in Personality Psychology

Nature and definition
Development
Structure
Trait constructs
Dynamic processes
Variations (with emphasis on enduring and stable individual differences)
Maladaptive forms

Temperament according to Trait Theory

Starting point for personality shaping (includes basic and fundamental primary personality traits)
Temperament includes personality traits that are present from early childhood
Temperament includes those personality traits that have a biological basis

Costa & McCrae Criteria

Presence of factors, manifested in stability, accuracy measured by the consistency of observers' opinions, and practical usefulness
Prevalence, the fact of occurring in numerous forms in all cultures, races, regardless of gender and age
Biological basis (usually limited to measurement based on the heritability index)

Big Five

Openness to Experience: describes an individual's tendency to seek and positively evaluate life experiences, tolerance towards new things, and cognitive curiosity
Conscientiousness: degree of organization, perseverance, and motivation in goal-oriented activities
Extraversion: quality and quantity of social interactions, activity, energy, and the ability to feel positive emotions
Agreeableness: positive vs negative attitudes towards other people, interpersonal orientation
Neuroticism: emotional adjustment vs emotional imbalance

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Description

This quiz covers the basics of interindividual and intraindividual differences in psychology, with examples of how they are observed and studied.