Individual Differences Lecture Notes PDF

1 Lecture 01 Types of differences Interindividual differences Intraindividual differences - the variations between - differences that are observed individuals in one or more traits, within the same...

1 Lecture 01 Types of differences Interindividual differences Intraindividual differences - the variations between - differences that are observed individuals in one or more traits, within the same person when they behaviours, or characteristics are assessed at different times or in different situations Examples: The student described one subject with whom she spent the entire day and, based on her observations, drew conclusions about the subject’s temperament features. Differential psychology = Psychology of individual differences + Psychology of group differences  2 Important terms enduring patterns of behavior and Trait thought that are relatively consistent over time and across various situations An internal psychological disposition that remains largely unchanged throughout the lifespan and determines differences between individuals Descriptive traits - the sum of variables that describe the observable consistency of behavior that has occurred in the past Latent traits - features that cannot be directly observed Trait State Long-term Short-term conditions conditions Revealed in Manifests response to a itself stimulus or in continuously specific Specific situations Depends on Abstract the situation Depends on Has the the person nature of an Has the event nature of a Codetermined disposition by the trait Manifests Observed itself in states Measured Not observed directly Measured indirectly  3 the more-or-less enduring Factor psychological characteristic that distinguishes one person from another and thus helps to define each person's individuality a term used to describe a Dimension continuum from minimum to maximum intensity of a given feature a construct used to describe the Disposition stability of human behavior over time the dominant quality or qualities Type distinguishing a person or a group EXAMPLE: - When we’re using the expression Mary comes from that C4 group and a specific category of description comes to our mind, we most likely use a description in the category of a type  4 Behavioral genetics Nature vs Nurture B = f(GxE) B – behavior G – genetical influences E – environmental influences Behavioral genetics - Study of the biological basis of individual Differences Phenotype expression of an individual’s genes in behavioral traits that can be measured Phenotypic variance  5 Heritability estimate – a statistical indicator of the influence of genetic factors on individual differences in behavioral traits, showing what proportion of the total variance is attributable to genetic variation the portion of the phenotypic (total) variance that is attributable to genetic variance  6 Family studies (comparing pairs of people with different degrees of relatedness) Child shares genes (G) and environment (E) with parents. The effects of genes and environment thus are confounded Adoption studies Child shares G with biological parents, E with adoptive parents. Genetic effects are evident if child behaves like the biological parents, and vice versa.  7 Twin studies Fraternal/dizygotic (DZ) twins share 50% of their genes, whilst identical/monozygotic (MZ) twins share 100% of their genes. Comparing MZ and DZ twins will provide evidence for the effect of genes (as it matched designs). MZ and DZ twins reared together and MZ twins reared apart The subject of individual differences psychology A historically embedded science – Plato (individual differences and types of citizens) – Aristotle (six distinct classes of people) – Cicero (intelligence as a property of mind that differentiates people) – Hippocrates (four basic humors of blood, bile, black bile, phlegm) – Galen (temperament typology) Empirical studies – Darwin (inheritance) – Galton (genius inheritance) – Binet (research on intelligence) – Stern (intelligence research, IQ) Research on temperament – Wundt (sensory sensitivity) – Heymans and Wiersma (three-factor typology of temperament)  8 – Burt (heritability of intelligence, descriptive method of personality measurement) – Gesel, & Shirley (child's temperament) – Pavlov (four types of nervous system) – Kretschmer (constitutional approach to temperament research) – Sheldon (temperament as a result of three basic dimensions of body structure) – Allport (personality as a unique structure of features) EXAM QUESTIONS  9 3  10 Lecture 02 Temperament Manifests itself in formal characteristics of behavior. Formal features of behavior are independent of the direction and content of the behavior Formal features of behavior can be described in terms of energetic and temporal aspects of behavior In terms of formal characteristics of behavior, there are relatively stable individual differences (temperamental traits) Temperamental traits are primarily biologically determined Controversies about temperament Range of the term Transsituational stability ‘temperament’ The dynamics of emotions only or A necessary condition dynamics of all types of behavior? (Hagekull); Transsituational differences in narrow approach - limiting the the dynamics of behavior are concept of temperament to the temporary, unstable [they are dynamics of emotions processual in nature] (Strelau); (Goldsmith) Relative approach to a broad approach - covering the temperament (James-Roberts i dynamics of behavior in broad Wolke); sense [emotional, cognitive, motor] (Strelau, Eliasz) Coherent stability [persistent trans-situational inconsistencies in behavioral dynamics stable over time] (Eliasz); Situational approach to temperament (Gerstmann; extreme, outdated apprach)  11 Constitutional theories of temperament The principle of grouping individuals based on specific biological features (structures and physiological functions of the body), which were assigned to behavioral properties conditioned by these biological features connection between temperamental traits (inherited, innate) and body constitution Objections Ignoring the role of the environment and social conditions in shaping mental characteristics; Treating traits such as tolerance or eating culture as hereditary traits; Unjustified claim that healthy people harbor the seeds of mental illnesses; It is false to say that the difference between health and disease is only quantitative; There is no empirical evidence that there is a correspondence between body structure and specific temperament traits; Methodological errors in the conducted research; Social costs – these typologies became the scientific basis of racism  12 Pavlov’s types of nervous system Nervism principle – humans and animals behavior depends primarily on the activity of the central nervous system (CNS) Fundamental properties of the CNS are responsible for individual differences in conditioning (canine studies) and more generally in animal and human behavior Differences between individuals result from a combination of a limited number of CNS properties Properties of central nervous system This property refers to the ability Strenght of excitation of nervous cells to respond to stimuli. It is crucial for the formation and generalization of conditioned responses. Strong excitation indicates a robust capacity for neural activity. the most important of the nervous system properties the ability of nervous cells to work it can lead to the gain of conditioned responses, or the generalization of a conditioned response This involves the nervous Strenght of inhibition system's ability to suppress or control responses. It is important for conditioned inhibition, including extinction, differentiation, and delay. Strong inhibition is  13 necessary for managing prohibitions and refraining from specific actions is observed when a response that is already encoded is overcome or contained secondary property functional capacity of the nervous system in terms of conditioned, learned inhibition the ability to produce conditioned inhibition reactions (extinction, differentiation, delay) it manifests itself in situations where an individual deals with prohibitions and refraining from certain activities (e.g. no falsestart) An innate mechanism that Protective inhibition protects nerve cells from the harmful effects of strong or prolonged stimuli, preventing wear and exhaustion unconditioned, innate protects the nerve cell against further harmful effects of a strong or long-lasting stimulus (i.e.wear and exhaustion) Mobility refers to the nervous Mobility of nervous processes system's capacity to prioritize one impulse over another and adapt behavior according to changing stimuli. High mobility allows for  14 flexible and adaptive responses to varying situations the ability of the nervous system to give one impulse priority over another it manifests itself in the ability to change behavior according to changing stimuli (situations) it is a consequence of one action to another, having excitation before inhibition, or vice versa Balance is the ratio between the Balance of the nervous processes strength of excitation and inhibition. A balanced nervous system indicates a well-regulated interaction between these processes, leading to stable behavior. An imbalance can result in either excitable or inhibited temperaments depending on which process is dominant the relationship between the strength of both processes determines whether we are dealing with a balanced or unbalanced individual (the strength of one process dominates the strength of the other)  15 Types of nervous systems a type of higher nervous activity the combination of nervous system properties it is innate and not susceptible to changes under the influence of environmental and educational influences it is the physiological basis of temperament strong, balanced, mobile (sanguine) strong, balanced, slow (phlegmatic) strong, unbalanced, with (choleric) domination of strength of excitation weak (melancholic)  16 Properties of nervous system and human activity Basic features of nervous systems play an important role in animal behavior and in the process of adaptation of individuals to environmental requirements difficult conditions (situations) disturb the balance between the body and the environment the type of nervous system determines whether this balance will be disturbed or not individuals with a strong type of nervous system cope with difficult situations better than individuals with a weak typeof nervous system the importance of the type of nervous system in human behavior is revealed especially in difficult [stressful] situations (disturbance of the balance between the body and the environment) Empirical studies Mierlin (1955): in students with strong nervous system, failing grades act as a motivator to learn, while in students with weak nervous system, similar grades cause discouragement from learning and behaviors indicating protective inhibition Mierlin's colleagues: during competitions, athletes with strong nervous systems achieve better results than athletes with weak nervous systems; in the training situation, there are no differences between athletes with strong and weak nervous systems. Gurievich, Matvieyev (1970): in an emergency situation (simulated failure of an electric power plant), operators with strong nervous system function effectively, while operators with weak nervous system suffer from disorders (disturbances of memory, perception, thinking)  17 Strong nervous systems are better at studying(Mierlin), sport competitions(Mierlin’s colleagues), and in operating emergency situations (Gurievich, Matvieyev) Weak nervous systems are discouragement from learning and behaviors indicating protective inhibition(Mierlin), worser in sport competition but the same in training(Mierlin’s colleagues), suffer from suffer from disorders (disturbances of memory, perception, thinking) in emergency Styles of action Klimov (1959): the mobility of nervous processes does not affect the work efficiency of weavers; „mobile" weavers differ from "immobile" weavers in their style of actions; „mobile" weavers do their work quickly because they are agile; „immobile" ("slow") weavers spend a lot of time on orientation and preventive activities and thus protect themselves against irregularities in their work Kopytkova (1964): the relationship between operators' efficiency and strength of their nervous system (operators with weak nervous system) perform significantly more control and preventive activities compared to operators with strong nervous system, who are dominated by executive activities Polish studies on styles of action Matczak, Strelau, Eliasz: an individual can regulate the level of stimulation through the content (meaning) and formal aspects of the processed information  18 Strelau: people with low need for stimulation choose auxiliary style of action (planning and preparing for the activity, allowing them to reduce the basic value of stimulation) Klonowicz: simultaneous translators with high need for stimulation less stressed out in comparison to individuals with low need for stimulation Wieczorkowska: point activity style vs interval activity style corresponding to the individual need of stimulation EXAM QUESTIONS  19 2  20 Lecture 03 Concepts of temperament related to activation theory These concepts refer to the various structures and functions of the nervous system responsible for the level of activation Sources: – Pavlov's concept (strenght of nervous processes; body's efficiency interpreted in terms of cortical stimulation and the phenomenon of protective inhibition) – Yerkes and Dodson's laws on the relationship between the level of arousal (motivation) and the level of performance (response effectiveness) – empirical data indicating that the nervous centers located mainly in the reticular formation are responsible for the energetic level of functioning of humans Yerkes-Dodson law The Yerkes-Dodson Law, formulated by psychologists Robert M. Yerkes and John D. Dodson in 1908, posits that there is an optimal level of arousal for peak performance. Concept: Performance increases with physiological or mental arousal, but only up to a point. When arousal becomes too high, performance decreases. This relationship is visualized as an inverted U-shaped curve. Optimal Arousal: The peak of the curve represents the optimal level of arousal, where performance quality is at its highest. Low Arousal: On the left side of the curve, low arousal levels lead to poor performance due to boredom or apathy. High Arousal: On the right side of the curve, excessive arousal levels lead to poor performance due to anxiety or stress.  21 Other in terms of the level of activation (arousal), there are relatively stable individual differences ability for activation (Gray, 1964) is a feature that determines individual differences in the level of activation individuals differ in their level of activation, i.e. the chronic tendency to maintain an increased or decreased level of activation these concepts focus on two categories of dimensions (properties): – manifested in action, behavioural activity: extraversion – introversion (H. Eysenck) impulsivity (H. Eysenck and S. Eysenck; E. S. Barratt, J. A. Gray) sensation seeking (M. Zuckerman) – strengthening - suppressing stimulation (A. Petrie) manifested in emotional functioning: neuroticism (H. Eysenck) anxiety (K. W. Spencer, J. A. Gray, C. D. Spielberger) Eysenck's biological PEN theory Historical sources of the theory: Hippocrates-Galen typology - four humors or bodily fluids held the secret to health. These humors were, blood, phlegm, yellow bile and black bile. A proper mixing of these humors constituted good health. The term "extraversion-introversion" borrowed from Jung Causal approach to temperament, in accordance with Gross's concept (neurophysiological interpretation of primary-secondary function) Research by Hymans and Wiersma in which the psychometric approach was combined with laboratory research  22 Essential elements of the theory: – temperament has a biological basis – temperamental features are universal – temperamental structure can be described by several independent independent factors (extroversion [E], neuroticism [N], and psychoticism [P]). Personality vs temperament according to Eysenck Personality "a relatively stable organization of character, temperament, intellect, and physical properties that determine specific ways of adapting to the environment„; Temperament is the non-cognitive aspects of personality (Eysenck & Eysenck, 1985) the terms "personality" and "temperament" are synonymous (Eysenck, 1994); Eysenck used them Interchangeably biological aspects of personality should be identified with temperament (Eysenck, 1994) temperament determines "an individual's characteristic way of behaving, especially towards other people" (Eysenck, 1994)  23 Personality structure model the level of theoretical constructs (genotype) [L1] the level of phenomena that can be observed in laboratory conditions (general psychology experiments) [L2] the level of traits resulting from the interaction of genotype and environment; these are primary traits (e.g. impulsivity, carefreeness, activity) and general traits (neuroticism, extraversion-introversion, psychoticism) [L3] The influence of genotype on three dimensions of personality these dimensions emerge from all multidimensional personality research they are found in all, even completely different, cultures the intensity of E, N and P is very similar among individuals throughout life, despite diverse and rich individual experiences genetic research confirms the existence of three biologically determined dimensions  24 Dimensions of personality Unlike introversion, consists of Extraversion features such as sociability, liveliness, activity, assertiveness and sensation seeking physiological basis of extraversion: – inhibition theory (early research) – activation theory (ABOUT THEM BELOW) The functional role of extraversion conditioning is generally easier for introverts than for extroverts in experimental conditions in which the stimulation value of the stimulus (situation) is high, extroverts are more efficient than introverts extroverts choose forms of professional activity, study and ways of spending free time that provide them with numerous social contacts introverts choose forms of activity that limit their social contacts extroverts are more sexually active than introverts introverts generally have higher academic achievement than extroverts  25 Conditioning Introverts – faster with unconditional stimuli of punitive nature Extroverts – faster with unconditional stimuli of rewarding nature neuroticism (emotionality) Neuroticism consists of features such as anxiety, depression, guilt, low self-esteem and tension; The opposite of neuroticism is emotional balance; Physiological basis of neuroticism: – earlier version - individual differences in the field of N are determined by the functioning of the ANS (the reactivity of the sympathetic nervous system is higher in neurotics than in emotionally balanced people; in the former, the sympathetic system dominates over the parasympathetic one) – later version - individual differences in terms of N determine the so-called "visceral brain" (limbic system and hypothalamus) and ANS (higher reactivity of the limbic system in neurotics) the dimension of psychoticism is Psychoticism directly related to pathology it varies altruism, empathy, and  26 sociality to psychotic syndromes such as crime, psychopathy and schizophrenia the physiological basis of psychoticism is unclear Critical remarks undermining the primacy of dimensions of E and N (anxiety with sensitivity to punishment and lack of rewards; impulsivity with sensitivity to rewards and lack of punishment) faster and simpler conditioning processes in I than in E when the conditioned stimulus is punishment deviations in circadian patterns (I - higher arousal in the morning, E - higher arousal in the evening) - different levels of activity during the day Psychoticism – distribution of final results Inhibition theory (Extraversion) sources: the concept of reactive inhibition according to Hull (1943) and the theory of excitation and inhibition according to Pavlov (1951 -1952) postulates: – individuals differ in the speed and strength with which excitation and inhibition arise and in the speed with which inhibition disappears – individuals with weak, slowly developed excitation potential, with quickly rise of strong reactive inhibition that disappears slowly, are predisposed to extraverted behavior patterns  27 – individuals with a tendency to introverted types of behavior have a strong excitation potential that develops quickly, while reactive inhibition develops slowly, is weak and disappears quickly – according to the dimension of balance of cortical excitation/inhibition processes, extroverts are placed on the inhibition side, while introverts are placed on the excitation side drug postulate: – sedative drugs, by increasing the level of inhibition and lowering the level of excitation, lead to the disclosure of extroverted behavior patterns – stimulant drugs, by reducing the level of inhibition and increasing the level of inhibition, lead to the disclosure of introverted behavior patterns Activation theory (Extraversion) source: f Moruzzi and Magoun (1949) the reticular system of the brain stem produces non-specific activation called cortical excitation, which is expressed in spontaneous electrical potentials of the brain recorded in the EEG the ascending reticular activating system (ARAS) is responsible for individual differences in E-I, which regulates the level of cortical activation (cortical stimulation) in response to external and internal stimuli ARAS causes higher levels of cortical arousal in introverts than in extroverts (introverts have chronically higher levels of cortical arousal) Introduction to the personality the enduring characteristics and behavior that comprise a person’s unique adjustment to life, including major traits, interests, drives, values, self-concept, abilities, and emotional patterns construct used in order to explain the structure and development of personality  28 Allport definition of personality Personality - Dynamic organization within an individual, including mental systems that determine the individual's specific ways of adapting to the environment Studies in personality psychology nature and definition development structure trait constructs dynamic processes variations (with emphasis on enduring and stable individual differences) maladaptive forms Temperament according to trait theory starting point for personality shaping (includes basic and fundamental primary personality traits) temperament includes personality traits that are present from early childhood temperament includes those personality traits that have a biological basis  29 Temperament and personality Costa & McCrae criteria the presence of factors, manifested in stability, accuracy measured by the consistency of observers' opinions, and practical usefulness prevalence, the fact of occurring in numerous forms in all cultures, races, regardless of gender and age biological basis (usually limited to measurement based on the heritability index) Big Five Openess to Exprerience Conscientiousness Extraversion Agreeableness Neuroticism  30 A dimension describing an individual's tendency Openness to to seek and positively evaluate life experiences, experience tolerance towards new things and cognitive curiosity It is closely related to the ability to think divergently and to be creative Includes: imagination, aesthetics, feelings, actions, ideas, values A dimension used to describe the degree of Consciousness organization, perseverance and motivation of an individual in goal-oriented activities (describes a person's attitude to work) Includes: competence, tendency to maintain order, dutifulness, striving for achievement, self-discipline, prudence  31 A dimension used to describe the quality and Extraversion quantity of social interactions, the level of activity, energy and the ability to feel positive emotions Includes: sociability, cordiality, assertiveness, activity, sensation seeking, emotionality in terms of positive emotions A dimension used to describe positive vs Agreeableness negative attitudes towards other people, interpersonal orientation manifested in altruism vs antagonism, experienced feelings, thoughts and actions Includes: trust, straightforwardness, altruism, yielding, modesty, tendency to get emotional A dimension reflecting emotional adjustment vs Neuroticism emotional imbalance Susceptibility to experiencing negative emotions (e.g. fear, confusion, dissatisfaction, anger, guilt), sensitivity to psychological stress Includes: anxiety, aggressive hostility, depressiveness, impulsivity, hypersensitivity, excessive self-criticism Assumptions it characterizes a normal personality it is not identical with types (it is continuous and normally distributed in the population) the Big Five traits should not be simply valued the Big Five traits meet the criteria for basic personality dimensions it is biologically rooted  32 Correlation between twin pairs: Neuroticism: Monozygotic twins: The correlation is approximately 0.45. This suggests a moderate genetic influence on neuroticism, as identical twins share the same genes. Dizygotic twins: The correlation is around 0.2, indicating a lower but still notable genetic influence since fraternal twins share about 50% of their genes. Extraversion: Monozygotic twins: The correlation is about 0.55, showing a strong genetic component. Dizygotic twins: The correlation is approximately 0.3, suggesting that genetics play a significant role, but environmental factors are also influential.  33 Openness: Monozygotic twins: The correlation is the highest at about 0.6, indicating a very strong genetic influence on openness. Dizygotic twins: The correlation is around 0.3, which shows a moderate genetic influence. Agreeableness: Monozygotic twins: The correlation is roughly 0.4, demonstrating a moderate genetic influence. Dizygotic twins: The correlation is about 0.2, suggesting that genetics are a factor, but shared environment and unique experiences also play roles. Conscientiousness: Monozygotic twins: The correlation is around 0.45, indicating a moderate genetic influence. Dizygotic twins: The correlation is about 0.25, showing that genetics have a moderate influence, with environmental factors contributing as well. All five personality traits have a genetic component, as evidenced by the higher correlations in monozygotic twins compared to dizygotic twins. The traits of Openness and Extraversion show the strongest genetic influence, while Neuroticism, Agreeableness, and Conscientiousness also have significant but slightly lower genetic components. The differences between the correlations for monozygotic and dizygotic twins highlight the role of genetics in personality, while also indicating the importance of environmental factors. Studies on personality The most important individual differences are encoded in language Those properties or characteristics that were important for the survival of the individual were reflected in language  34 The more important a given property or individual difference is, the richer its lexical representation Representatives: Golberg (USA), Hofstee, Brokken & De Raad Lexicographic (Netherlands), Angleitner, Ostendorf & John (Germany) approach Assumptions: names of the traits refer to the features themselves, regardless of the differences of use in spoken and written language; names of the traits have specific and stable meanings; single terms are a better starting point for creating a personality taxonomy than tasks Research procedure: preparing a list of the most representative terms (adjectives) referring to human personality traits contained in the dictionary of a given language and then using them for research with application of factor analysis Representatives: Costa & McCrae (USA), Boyle, Noller, Law i Comrey Psychometrical (USA), Conn i Ramanaiah (USA) approach Assumptions: personality diagnosis based on a questionnaire (with sentences) is more precise (situational and motivational context, better reflection of colloquial language, possibility of examining children) than diagnosis based on single terms (adjectives) Research procedure: analysis of existing questionnaires (e.g. cluster analysis) in order to create new ones, which will then be used in studies based on factor analysis Representatives: Halverson (USA), Kohnstamm (Netherlands), Approach based Mervielde (Belgium) on personal Approaches: spontaneously distinguished descriptions are significant descriptions for their authors due to their personality characteristics; the number of descriptions is proportional to the importance of a given feature; free descriptions reflect the influence of culture on various aspects of personality Research procedure: collecting free descriptions of people's personalities (e.g. descriptions of children's personalities made by parents), which, after appropriate classification, serve as a set of test items for research based on factor analysis  35 Limitations low ecological validity of dictionary lists (entries in the dictionary do not reflect their importance and frequency of use) limited possibility of application of dictionary lists in studies of various age groups (including children) lack of agreement for results of studies conducted in children little attention to the cultural specificity of the output data Aims of the studies establishing basic dimensions used to describe the structure of children's temperament and personality based on free descriptions made by parents conducting cross-cultural comparisons on dimensions used to describe children aged 3-12 construction of a series of techniques to measure the temperament and personality of children aged 3 to 12 Research procedure personal descriptions of children by their parents transcription and categorization of the obtained descriptions construction of homogeneous clusters within categories factor analysis of data assessment of the theoretical and predictive validity of tools cross-cultural comparisons  36 Results The descriptions could be classified into the Big Five dimensions China - 85.2%; Germany - 85.1%; USA - 84.4%; Poland - 81.4%; Greece - 81.0%; Belgium - 77.0%; Netherlands - 76.3% Most descriptions included the Extraversion category (25.9% - 29.5%) The second most popular was the Agreeableness category (17.4% - 25.5%), The third most popular the Openness to experience category (11.1% to 21.2%) Cross-cultural and gender differences Agreeableness: Greece > China; Openess to experience: Germany & USA > other countries Conscientiousness: China > other countries negative descriptions: boys > girls positive descriptions: boys < girls Psychological correspondence Compatibility concerned only the number of factors obtained Lack of agreement regarding the content of the identified main dimensions and the classification of subdimensions included in the five factors  37 STUDIES ON TABLES Age differences for personality traits Neuroticism (N): Neuroticism shows a slight decline with age. This trend suggests that individuals tend to become more emotionally stable as they age, experiencing fewer negative emotions and less stress. Extraversion (E): Extraversion also shows a gradual decline over the lifespan. This indicates that as people age, they may become less sociable and energetic, preferring calmer and less stimulating environments. Openness to Openness shows a peak in adolescence and early adulthood, Experience (O): followed by a gradual decline. This suggests that younger individuals are more open to new experiences, ideas, and changes, but this openness decreases with age. Agreeableness (A): Agreeableness shows an increase from adolescence into old age. This trend suggests that as individuals age, they become more cooperative, trusting, and compassionate towards others. Conscientiousness Conscientiousness shows a significant increase from adolescence (C): into middle adulthood, then levels off in older age. This indicates that individuals tend to become more organized, responsible, and reliable as they age, reaching a peak in middle age.  38 Age differences in Italian personality profiles Neuroticism: Average Italian personality profile is lower than the ratings by both adults and students. This indicates that Italians see themselves as less neurotic than how they are perceived by others. Extraversion: The average profile is lower than students' ratings but similar to adults' ratings. Italians consider themselves less extraverted than the perception by students but in line with adults' perceptions. Openness: The average profile is slightly lower than both adults' and students' ratings. This suggests that Italians view themselves as less open than how others perceive them. Agreeableness: The average profile is higher than both adults' and students' ratings. Italians see themselves as more agreeable than others perceive them to be.  39 Conscientiousness: The average profile is lower than adults' and students' ratings. Italians consider themselves less conscientious than how others rate them. Other Traits (e.g., Similar trends where the average profile often differs from the Anxiety, Hostility, national character ratings. Depression): Italians typically rate themselves lower on negative traits and higher on positive traits compared to others' perceptions. Trust, Compliance, The average profiles are generally higher, showing Italians see Modesty: themselves as more trustworthy, compliant, and modest compared to others' ratings. Competence, Order, Average profiles are lower than the national character ratings. Dutifulness: Indicates Italians see themselves as less competent, orderly, and dutiful. Italians tend to view themselves more favorably on positive traits and less negatively on negative traits compared to how they are perceived by adults and students. These differences suggest cultural nuances in self-assessment and external perception within Italy.  40 Cross-cultural research on personality Extraversion (blue line) North America: Moderate score (around 3.3). South America: Slightly higher (around 3.4). Western Europe: Lower than South America, similar to North America (around 3.3). Eastern Europe: Slightly lower (around 3.2). Southern Europe: Similar to Eastern Europe (around 3.2). Middle East: Similar to Southern Europe (around 3.2). Africa: Slight increase (around 3.3). Oceania: Similar to Africa (around 3.3). South/SE Asia: Lower score (around 2.9). Agreeableness (red squares) North America: High score (around 3.7). South America: Slightly lower (around 3.6). Western Europe: Higher (around 3.8). Eastern Europe: Slightly lower (around 3.7). Southern Europe: Similar to Eastern Europe (around 3.7). Middle East: Slightly lower (around 3.6). Africa: Similar to Middle East (around 3.6). Oceania: Higher (around 3.8). South/SE Asia: Highest (around 3.9).  41 Conscientiousness (green North America: Moderate score (around 3.4). triangles): South America: Slightly higher (around 3.5). Western Europe: Lower (around 3.4). Eastern Europe: Similar to Western Europe (around 3.4). Southern Europe: Similar to Eastern Europe (around 3.4). Middle East: Lower (around 3.3). Africa: Slightly higher (around 3.5). Oceania: Slightly lower (around 3.4). South/SE Asia: Lower (around 3.3). Openness (purple crosses): North America: High score (around 3.8). South America: Slightly lower (around 3.7). Western Europe: Higher (around 3.9). Eastern Europe: Slightly lower (around 3.7). Southern Europe: Lower (around 3.6). Middle East: Similar to Southern Europe (around 3.6). Africa: Slightly higher (around 3.7). Oceania: Higher (around 3.8). South/SE Asia: Slightly lower (around 3.6). Neuroticism (light blue line): North America: Moderate score (around 3.0). South America: Slightly higher (around 3.1). Western Europe: Lower (around 3.0). Eastern Europe: Higher (around 3.2). Southern Europe: Similar to Eastern Europe (around 3.2). Middle East: Slightly higher (around 3.2). Africa: Lower (around 3.1). Oceania: Similar to Africa (around 3.1). South/SE Asia: Lower (around 2.9). Interpretation: 1. Regional Differences: ○ Western Europe and Oceania generally show higher Openness.  42 ○ South/SE Asia shows the highest Agreeableness but the lowest Extraversion. ○ Neuroticism scores vary significantly, being lower in South/SE Asia and higher in Eastern Europe and the Middle East. ○ Conscientiousness scores are relatively stable but slightly higher in Africa and South America. 2. Cultural Influence: ○ These trends reflect cultural influences on personality traits. For instance, high Agreeableness in South/SE Asia might relate to cultural emphasis on harmony and collectivism. ○ Higher Openness in Western Europe and North America might reflect cultural values of individuality and innovation. Personality traits across cultures This multidimensional scaling plot represents the personality traits of 36 cultures, with the axes reflecting different dimensions of personality. The plot is based on research by Allik and McCrae (2004), which examined cross-cultural differences in personality traits.  43 Cultural Clusters High Extraversion and Low Cultures like Germans, Austrians, Swiss, and Neuroticism (Top Right Quadrant) White South Africans. These cultures are characterized by sociable and emotionally stable individuals. High Extraversion and High Cultures like Japanese, Spaniards, Belgians, Neuroticism (Top Left Quadrant) and Russians (explains a lot lol). These cultures are characterized by sociable individuals who also experience higher emotional instability. Low Extraversion and Low Neuroticism Cultures like Dutch, Swedes, Danes, and (Bottom Right Quadrant) Americans. These cultures are characterized by reserved and emotionally stable individuals. Low Extraversion and High Neuroticism Cultures like Marathi, Filipinos, Indonesians, (Bottom Left Quadrant) and Malaysians. These cultures are characterized by reserved individuals who also experience higher emotional instability. Specific Cultural Positions Western Europe: Generally higher in Extraversion (e.g., French, Italians) but vary in Neuroticism (e.g., Belgians high, Italians moderate). East Asia: Lower in Extraversion and moderate to high in Neuroticism (e.g., PRC Chinese, S. Koreans). Africa: Shows variation with some cultures like Black South Africans and Zimbabweans being more emotionally stable but lower in Extraversion.  44 North America: Americans and Canadians are relatively high in Extraversion and low in Neuroticism. Controversies single terms do not reflect the complexity of a person's personality and behavior the greater importance of a feature does not always correspond to a greater number of synonyms in a given language static approach to personality description or interpretation of behavior? arbitrariness of many stages of factor analysis some empirical data indicate correlations between factors (0.3 - 0.5) EXAM QUESTIONS 45  46 Didn’t find evidence for it in presentation  47 Lecture 04 Temperament set of basic, primarily biologically determined and relatively stable personality traits applies to the formal characteristics of behavior includes energetic and temporal domains of behavoior Assumptions no hypotheses about any specific neurophysiological mechanism responsible for traits manifestation behavioral activation plays a major role in reactions related to temperamental traits the functional significance of temperament can be most clearly demonstrated when individuals are confronted with stressful situations or excessive environmental demands the level of activation is regulated by biochemical and physiological processes which determine each person’s “neurochemical identity” Temperament refers to the formal characteristics of behavior “Temperament is an expression of energy level and temporal features of behavior”  48 Temperament and personality Regulative Theory of Temperament (RTT) Author - Sterlau the functional significance of temperament characteristics is observable especially under extreme demands the structure of temperament is described by independent traits: sensory sensitivity, emotional reactivity, endurance, activity, briskness, perseverance  49 Postulates Temperament manifests itself in formal characteristics of behavior Formal features of behavior can be described in terms of energetic and temporal categories In terms of formal characteristics of behavior, there are relatively stable individual differences Individual differences in temperament are common, i.e. they refer to all behaviors and reactions Temperamental traits are present from early infancy Temperament occurs in both humans and animals Temperament in its basic form is the result of biological evolution, hence the genetic factor as well as specific physiological and biochemical mechanisms co-determine individual differences in temperament Temperamental traits, although relatively constant, are subject to slow changes in ontogeny (due to developmental changes and interactions of genotype and environment) The role of temperament in regulating relations with the world is revealed mainly in extreme situations and/or behaviors Temperament - A set of basic, relatively stable personality traits that manifest themselves in the formal characteristics of behavior (energetic and temporal). These features occur in early childhood and are present both in humans and animals. Being primarily determined by innate physiological mechanisms, temperament is subject to changes that occur under the influence of maturation (and aging) and certain environmental factors  50 Domains Energetic Domain Sensory sensitivity (SST) An ability to react to sensory stimuli of low stimulatory value Can be: Sensory sensitivity OR Sensory sensitivness Endurance (END) The ability to respond adequately to situations requiring long-term or highly stimulating activity and under conditions of strong external stimulation Can be: Endurance to distractions OR Endurance to fatigue (endurance limit) Emotional Reactivity (ERA) The tendency to react intensely to stimuli, expressed in high sensitivity and low emotional resistance Emotional sensitivity Emotional endurance (?) Activity (ACT) The tendency to engage in behaviors of high stimulus value or to behaviors that provide stimulation from the environment Temporal Domain Briskness (BRS) The tendency to react quickly, maintain a high pace of activity and easily change from one behavior to another in response to changes in the environment Perservation (PER) The tendency to continue and repeat behaviors and experiences after the end of the stimulus (situation) that these behaviors and states caused  51 The genetic factor explains approximately 40% of temperamental variance Biological basis of temperament temperament is determined by an individual-specific configuration of neurological and endocrine systems intraindividual and interindividual differences in the functioning of these mechanisms The biological bases of the RTT traits Polish sample of 463 pairs of twins (250 MZ and 213 DZ pairs) aged 16-63 (.50), perseverance (.43), sensory sensitivity (.42), emotional reactivity (.34), endurance (.46), activity (.54) (Strelau et al., 1995) German sample of 860 twin pairs (698 MZ and 162 DZ pairs) aged 14 - 80 similar results (Angleitner et al., 1995) an additive genetic factor explained about 40% of the phenotypic variance in traits measured by RTT (Strelau et al., 2002) Reactivity rooted in the concept of strength of excitation a dimension revealed in sensitivity (sensory and emotional) at one pole, and efficiency (resistance to intensive stimulation) at the other high-reactive individuals (Pavlovian weak CNS type) high sensitivity and low endurance low-reactive individuals (Pavlovian strong types) low levels of sensitivity and a high levels of endurance  52 more or less stable relationship between the sensitivity and endurance thresholds Activity temperamental trait that refers to the frequency and intensity of actions individuals engage in responsible for regulation of the stimulative value of behavior, situations, or both and satisfying indvdual’s need for stimulation “one of the sources and regulators of arousal level; owing to the inflow of appropriate stimuli it renders possible the maintenance of this excitation at an optimum level” Activity and reactivity A high level of activity goes hand in hand with a low reactivity The role of activity is regulation of arousal level Highly reactive people show high sensitivity and low efficiency low need for stimulation clearly defined situations, no additional tasks or responsibilities, a tendency to avoid failure , involvement in preparatory, measuring, control activities Low reactive people present low sensitivity and high efficiency people have a high need for stimulation need for strong stimuli, and need for stimulation, a tendency to engage in an additional tasks and responsibilities, a tendency for straightforward activity Effectiveness of regulation of stimulation matching the incoming stimulation to individual processing capabilities  53 Efficient regulation of High endurance, low emotional reactivity and high activity stimulation Low endurance, high emotional reactivity and low activity Non-efficient regulation of High endurance, low emotional reactivity and low activity stimulation (a tendency for understimulation) Low endurance, high emotional reactivity and high activity (a tendency for overstimulation) Temperamental risk factor Absence of effective stimulation regulation Observed in people within inadequate environment Studies  54 Age differences in temperament BR (Briskness - Red Line): Briskness refers to the tendency to react quickly and maintain a fast tempo of activities. Scores for Briskness increase slightly from 15-19 to 30-39 years, then decline in older age groups. This suggests an increase in briskness during early adulthood, followed by a decrease in middle age and later years. PE (Perseverance - Green Perseverance refers to the ability to maintain activities Line): despite interruptions or obstacles. Scores for Perseverance decrease gradually across age cohorts. This indicates that individuals may become less persistent or less inclined to persevere as they age. SS (Sensory Sensitivity - Sensory Sensitivity involves the ability to respond to Blue Line): sensory stimuli.  55 Scores for Sensory Sensitivity remain relatively stable until 40-49 years, after which they decline. This suggests that sensory sensitivity remains consistent through early and middle adulthood but decreases in older age. EN (Emotional Reactivity - Emotional Reactivity refers to the tendency to react Cyan Line): intensely to emotion-provoking stimuli. Scores for Emotional Reactivity start high in youth, decrease significantly in middle age, and slightly recover in later years. This shows a decline in emotional reactivity in early adulthood, stabilizing somewhat in older age. ER (Endurance - Black Endurance is the ability to sustain long-term, effortful Line): activities. Scores for Endurance remain relatively stable with a slight decrease in middle age and a slight increase in older age. This indicates stable endurance across the lifespan with minor fluctuations. AC (Activity - Purple Activity refers to the overall level of physical and mental Line): activity. Scores for Activity decrease steadily from adolescence to older age. This suggests that activity levels decline consistently across the lifespan. Age Trends: Most temperament traits exhibit significant changes across different age cohorts. Traits like Briskness and Emotional Reactivity show notable fluctuations, indicating developmental changes in these areas. Traits such as Perseverance and Activity show a clear declining trend, suggesting a decrease in these traits with age.  56 Gender differences in temperament B (Briskness): Males: Approximately 14 Females: Approximately 13 Explanation: Males score slightly higher than females on Briskness, indicating a tendency for quicker reactions and a faster activity tempo. This difference is not marked as statistically significant. PE (Perseverance): Males: Approximately 16 Females: Approximately 14 Explanation: Males score higher than females on Perseverance, suggesting a greater tendency to maintain activities despite  57 interruptions. This difference is not marked as statistically significant. ER (Emotional Reactivity): Males: Approximately 10 Females: Approximately 13 Explanation: Females score significantly higher than males on Emotional Reactivity. This trait is indicated by the double asterisks (ER**) and a p-value of less than 0.01, signifying a highly significant difference. This means females tend to have stronger emotional responses compared to males E (Endurance): Males: Approximately 12 Females: Approximately 9 Explanation: Males score higher than females on Endurance, with a single asterisk (E*) indicating a p-value of less than 0.05. This shows a statistically significant difference, meaning males have greater endurance for sustained activities compared to females A (Activity): Males: Approximately 11 Females: Approximately 10 Explanation: Males score slightly higher than females on Activity, suggesting they may be slightly more active. This difference is not marked as statistically significant, indicating that it is not a substantial difference SS (Sensory Sensitivity): Males: Approximately 16 Females: Approximately 14 Explanation: Females score  58 higher than males on Sensory Sensitivity, indicating greater responsiveness to sensory stimuli. This difference is not marked as statistically significant. Significant Correlations: Emotional Reactivity (ER): The difference is significant with a p-value of less than 0.01, indicating a highly significant correlation between gender and Emotional Reactivity. Endurance (E): The difference is significant with a p-value of less than 0.05, showing a statistically significant correlation between gender and Endurance. Non-Significant Correlations: Briskness (B), Perseverance (PE), Activity (A), and Sensory Sensitivity (SS): The differences are not statistically significant, indicating no substantial correlation between gender and these traits.  59 Age Trends: Males: Briskness scores for males remain relatively stable through most age cohorts, with a slight decline after age 50. Females: Briskness scores for females show a slight increase in early adulthood, followed by stability and a decline after age 50. Overall, males consistently score higher in briskness than females across all age cohorts.  60 Perseverance (PE): The differences in perseverance are also significant, with females consistently scoring higher than males across all age cohorts.  61 Perseverance (PE): The differences in perseverance are also significant, with females consistently scoring higher than males across all age cohorts.  62 Gender Differences: Males consistently score higher in Endurance compared to females across all age cohorts. These differences are likely to be statistically significant, indicating a substantial correlation between gender and endurance.  63 The consistent higher scores for males in later age cohorts suggest a significant difference in activity between genders as they age. The trend indicates that females start with higher activity levels in youth but experience a sharper decline compared to males.  64 Four types of temperament Temperament Differences: The melancholic and choleric temperaments have lower stimulation processing capacities, but their regulation effectiveness differs, leading to varying stimulation levels. The sanguine and phlegmatic temperaments have higher stimulation processing capacities, but their regulation effectiveness also differs, resulting in different stimulation outcomes. These differences are likely to be statistically significant, indicating substantial variation in temperament traits across the four types.  65 Temperament Differences: Experienced Pilots: Show high briskness, sensory sensitivity, and activity levels with very low emotional reactivity, indicating quick reactions, heightened sensory response, high activity, and emotional stability. Cadet Pilots: Display similar sensory sensitivity but lower scores in briskness and activity, and higher emotional reactivity compared to experienced pilots. Peers of Pilots: Generally show moderate scores in most traits, highlighting the distinct temperament profiles of pilots compared to non-pilot peers. 66  67 Temperament and PTSD: Individuals with higher briskness and endurance tend to have lower PTSD symptoms, suggesting these traits may provide some resilience against PTSD. Higher emotional reactivity and perseverance are associated with higher PTSD symptoms, indicating these traits may exacerbate PTSD symptoms.  68 Temperament Changes and PTSD: Individuals who show improvement in PTSD symptoms exhibit significant changes in Briskness, Emotional Reactivity, Endurance, and Activity. These changes suggest that effective PTSD treatment can enhance quick reactions, emotional stability, endurance, and overall activity levels 69  70 EXAM QUESTIONS  71 Lecture 05 Thomas & Chess approach Importance of individual differences The role of interaction between the individual and the environment The importance of social demands and expectations Roots of the theory Clinical observations (individual differences between children in their first weeks of life) Results of previous studies – individual patterns of behavior in infancy demonstrated by Gesell and Ames (1937) and Escalona (1968); – individual differences in newborns in terms of physiological and biochemical reactions demonstrated by Richmond and Lustman (1955) and Williams (1956); Goodness of fit NYLS 85 families middle and upper-middle class one, or two children between 2 and 3 months 133 subjects observed from 1956 to 1980 Individual reaction patterns  72 Categories of temperament Activity: level of motor activity and the amount of time baby spends being active Rhythmicity/regularity: how regular the patterns of eating, sleeping and other bodily functions are Response to new things: how baby will probably respond to new experiences, whether they are likely to accept new things or withdraw from them Adaptability: how baby responds to changes in their environment Sensitivity: baby’s threshold for stimuli Response: the energy levels and intensity of baby’s responses Disposition: whether baby generally seems happy or unhappy, friendly or unfriendly Distractability: how easily baby can be distracted from what they are doing Attention span: the span of time that baby will pay attention to one thing when left to their own devices, and their persistence with an activity  73 Types of temperament Easy: children categorized as ‘easy’ generally have a positive attitude, are quick to fall into routines, and quick to adapt to new situations (40%) Difficult: children in the ‘difficult’ category cry more often, have a harder time adapting to new situations, and don't regularly follow routines (10%) Slow to warm up: children who are ‘slow to warm up’ adapt slowly and can react negatively, but also show a low intensity in their emotional reactions (15%) The goodness of fit Correspondence between capacities, temperament, and other individual characteristics and opportunities, demands, and expectations of the environment (parents, teachers, peers) Optimal development Poorness of fit – maladaptive functioning and distorted development The importance of interactions Not so ‘difficult’ A difficult temperament itself does not lead to behavioral disorders Mismatch between the child's temperament and the demands of the environment may lead to behavioral disorders  74 Critical remarks Misleading adjectives (easy/ difficult) Lack of correspondence between difficult temperament and interactionist approach Poor psychometric properties of the tools used in the study Lack of operationalization of the term behavior disorder Current approach Temperament-based interventions – a training workshop for preschool day care providers – a parent education program for highly withdrawn children – a comprehensive intervention that teaches parents and teachers how to use temperament- based strategies to reduce the behavior problems of school-age children  75 EXAM QUESTIONS 76  77 Interesting how the 11 slides consist of 2 of the hardest questions from the exam?  78 Lecture 06 Biological theory of sensation seeking Experimental research Sensory deprivation studies Sensation seeking studies Scientific relationship with Eysenck Sensation seeking (Marvin Zuckerman) a trait defined by the need for varied, novel, and complex sensations and experiences and the willingness to take physical and social risks for the sake of such experience the high-sensation seeker is sensitive to his or her internal sensations and chooses external stimuli that maximize them Sensory deprivation vs sensation seeking Optimal levels of arousal (Wundt, Freud, Breuer) Brainwashing (forced standing, deprivation of food and sleep, solitary confinement, and repeated exposure to Communist propaganda) Sensory deprivation (Hebb) Sensory deprivation increased anxiety, somatic discomfort thinking and concentration difficulties both auditory and visual hallucinations none of the effects of sensory deprivation seemed to correlate with any personality variables  79 Optimal level of arousal a combination of physiological and psychological activation includes increased heart rate, respiration, and alertness can be influenced by factors such as stress, cognitive load, and emotional states Biological model of sensation seeking Just please don’t put it on exam please please please  80 Types of Sensation seeking Thrill and adventure seeking risky sports and other potentially dangerous experiences that produce unique sensations related to speed or defying gravity Experience seeking novel sensations and Experiences Example: Isabel is very sensitive to the situations in which she’s sensory deprived, she is very sensitive to internal sensations and usually seeks for external stimuli that will maximize it. Disinhibition sensation seeking focused on social activities Boredom susceptibility tolerance for any kind of repetitive experience, including routine work and boring people Sensation seeking ≠recklessness Impulsivity & sensation seeking impulsive sensation seeking ?impulsivity as a substrate of neuroticism ?“excitement seeking” as a substrate of extraversion  81 Farley Type T Personality (Farley) Individuals who seem to need a life of constant stimulation and risk-taking invariably high-energy people find excitement in different creative activities (e.g. mental exercise) Type A Personality (Farley) potentially doubly dangerous—to themselves and to others individuals looking for added excitement and risk inclined to seek new thrills with a great risk of starting to use alcohol, tobacco, or drugs between ages 10 and 15  82 STUDIES ( A LOT ) Interpretation Impulsivity: ○ Overall: Drug users exhibit the highest impulsivity, with significant differences observed between all three groups. ○ Specific Dimensions: Attention, Motor, and Non-Planning impulsivity are higher in drug users, with significant differences primarily between drug users and other groups. Sensation Seeking: ○ Overall: Drug users also exhibit the highest sensation seeking, with significant differences compared to controls and siblings. ○ Specific Dimensions: Significant differences in disinhibition suggest that drug users are more prone to disinhibited behavior compared to controls.  83 Interpretation Developmental Patterns: The increase in Sensation Seeking and Impulsivity during early to mid-adolescence aligns with developmental theories that suggest heightened risk-taking and exploration during this period. The subsequent decline in both traits indicates maturation and increased self-regulation as individuals transition into adulthood.  84 Males are higher that females lmao llloooll LOL haha LOL XDDD  85 Same here bruuuh I am not at my peak of sensation seeking I should kill myself will do it after exam yoooo  86 Ok yellow people highest And wtf is Jordan like Michael Jordan? And wtf he is not calming down at 60 he will have more sensation seeking than the whole chin chan chon chin nation > 87 88  89 Interpretation of the Trends 1. Decreases in PCRQ (Solid Line): ○ Trend: Negative slope. ○ Explanation: When the quality of the parent-child relationship decreases, higher levels of W1 Sensation Seeking are associated with lower levels of W2 Risk Taking. This may indicate that a worsening relationship quality has a moderating effect, possibly reducing risk-taking behavior despite higher sensation seeking. 2. Stable PCRQ (Dotted Line): ○ Trend: Slight positive slope. ○ Explanation: When the quality of the parent-child relationship remains stable, higher levels of W1 Sensation Seeking are slightly associated with higher levels of W2 Risk Taking. This suggests a more straightforward relationship between sensation seeking and risk-taking when relationship quality does not change. 3. Increases in PCRQ (Dashed Line):  90 ○ Trend: Strong positive slope. ○ Explanation: When the quality of the parent-child relationship improves, higher levels of W1 Sensation Seeking are strongly associated with higher levels of W2 Risk Taking. This indicates that an improving relationship quality might amplify the risk-taking behavior in sensation seekers. Cluster 1: Low Sensation Seekers Behaviors: Generally low scores across all measured behaviors. Explanation: This group is characterized by a lack of engagement in sensation-seeking activities, indicating a preference for routine and predictability. Cluster 2: Home-disliking Party Fans  91 Discovering New Places: Slightly above average. Traveling Without Plans: Slightly above average. Impatient at Home: High score. Unpredictable Friends: Above average. Wild Parties: High score. Excitement with Breaking Rules: Slightly above average. Doing Frightening Things: Below average. Bungee Jumping or Rafting: Below average. Explanation: This group dislikes staying at home and enjoys social activities and parties but does not engage much in high-risk activities like bungee jumping. Cluster 3: Adventurers Discovering New Places: Above average. Traveling Without Plans: High score. Impatient at Home: Average. Unpredictable Friends: Slightly above average. Wild Parties: Slightly above average. Excitement with Breaking Rules: Average. Doing Frightening Things: Above average. Bungee Jumping or Rafting: High score. Explanation: Adventurers are characterized by a strong preference for discovering new places and spontaneous travel, with a tendency to engage in thrilling activities. Cluster 4: Thrill Seekers Discovering New Places: Average. Traveling Without Plans: Slightly above average. Impatient at Home: Slightly above average. Unpredictable Friends: High score. Wild Parties: Above average. Excitement with Breaking Rules: High score. Doing Frightening Things: High score. Bungee Jumping or Rafting: Above average. Explanation: This group is characterized by a strong desire for excitement and thrill, engaging in a variety of high-risk and adventurous activities.  92 Cluster 5: High Sensation Seekers Discovering New Places: High score. Traveling Without Plans: High score. Impatient at Home: High score. Unpredictable Friends: High score. Wild Parties: High score. Excitement with Breaking Rules: High score. Doing Frightening Things: High score. Bungee Jumping or Rafting: High score. Explanation: High Sensation Seekers engage in a wide range of sensation-seeking behaviors, including traveling, social activities, thrill-seeking, and high-risk activities.  93 Cluster 1: Low Sensation Seekers Alcohol Use: Below average (-0.5) Smoking: Below average (-0.5) School Performance: Above average (0.5) Depression: Below average (-0.5) Explanation: Low Sensation Seekers engage less in alcohol use and smoking, perform better in school, and have lower levels of depression. Cluster 2: Home-disliking Party Fans Alcohol Use: Average (0.0) Smoking: Above average (0.5) School Performance: Below average (-0.5) Depression: Average (0.0) Explanation: This group shows average alcohol use, higher smoking rates, poorer school performance, and average depression levels. Cluster 3: Adventurers Alcohol Use: Average (0.0) Smoking: Average (0.0) School Performance: Average (0.0) Depression: Average (0.0) Explanation: Adventurers exhibit average behaviors across all measured outcomes, indicating a balanced profile without extreme tendencies. Cluster 4: Thrill Seekers Alcohol Use: Above average (0.5) Smoking: Above average (0.5) School Performance: Average (0.0) Depression: Average (0.0) Explanation: Thrill Seekers engage more in alcohol use and smoking but maintain average school performance and depression levels.  94 Cluster 5: High Sensation Seekers Alcohol Use: High (0.8) Smoking: High (0.8) School Performance: Below average (-0.5) Depression: Above average (0.5) Explanation: High Sensation Seekers are the most likely to engage in alcohol use and smoking, perform poorly in school, and have higher levels of depression. Cluster 1: Low Sensation Seekers Thrill-and-Adventure Seeking: Below average (-1.5) Experience Seeking: Below average (-1.0)  95 Disinhibition: Below average (-1.0) Boredom Susceptibility/Impulsivity: Below average (-1.5) Explanation: This group shows consistently low scores across all sensation-seeking dimensions, indicating minimal engagement in these behaviors. Cluster 2: Moderately Low Sensation Seekers Thrill-and-Adventure Seeking: Slightly below average (-0.5) Experience Seeking: Slightly below average (-0.5) Disinhibition: Slightly below average (-0.5) Boredom Susceptibility/Impulsivity: Slightly below average (-0.5) Explanation: This group shows moderately low scores across all dimensions, indicating a mild tendency towards sensation-seeking behaviors. Cluster 3: Non-Impulsive Sensation Seekers Thrill-and-Adventure Seeking: Average (0.0) Experience Seeking: Slightly above average (0.5) Disinhibition: Average (0.0) Boredom Susceptibility/Impulsivity: Average (0.0) Explanation: This group engages in sensation-seeking behaviors to a moderate extent but does not show high levels of impulsivity. Cluster 4: Impulsive Sensation Seekers Thrill-and-Adventure Seeking: Above average (1.0) Experience Seeking: Above average (1.0) Disinhibition: Above average (1.0) Boredom Susceptibility/Impulsivity: Above average (1.0) Explanation: This group shows high scores across all dimensions, indicating a strong tendency towards sensation-seeking behaviors accompanied by high impulsivity. Cluster 5: High Sensation Seekers Thrill-and-Adventure Seeking: High (1.5) Experience Seeking: High (1.5)  96 Disinhibition: High (1.5) Boredom Susceptibility/Impulsivity: High (1.5) Explanation: This group exhibits the highest scores across all dimensions, indicating a very strong inclination towards all types of sensation-seeking behaviors, including high levels of impulsivity. Cluster 1: Low Sensation Seekers Alcohol and Smoking Index: Below average (-0.5) Self-Control: Above average (0.5) Explanation: Low Sensation Seekers engage less in alcohol use and smoking, and exhibit higher self-control. Cluster 2: Moderately Low Sensation Seekers  97 Alcohol and Smoking Index: Slightly below average (-0.1) Self-Control: Slightly above average (0.3) Explanation: This group has slightly lower engagement in alcohol and smoking, with a moderately high level of self-control. Cluster 3: Non-Impulsive Sensation Seekers Alcohol and Smoking Index: Average (0.0) Self-Control: Average (0.0) Explanation: Non-Impulsive Sensation Seekers show average levels of alcohol and smoking behavior, and maintain average self-control. Cluster 4: Impulsive Sensation Seekers Alcohol and Smoking Index: Above average (0.5) Self-Control: Below average (-0.5) Explanation: This group shows higher engagement in alcohol and smoking and exhibits lower self-control. Cluster 5: High Sensation Seekers Alcohol and Smoking Index: Above average (0.6) Self-Control: Below average (-0.6) Explanation: High Sensation Seekers exhibit the highest levels of alcohol and smoking behaviors and the lowest levels of self-control.  98 EXAM QUESTIONS NO FUCKINH WAY THERE IS ONLY ONE FUCKING FFFFUUUKJCING QUESTION FROM THE SHITHOLE OF FFFFUCKING RESEARCHES FUUUUUUUUCKKING TEEEACHEEEEEEEEEEEEEEER WHY WOULD YOU GIVE 1212 PAGES OF FUCKING STUDIES TO PUT 1 NOT AGAIN 1 QUESTION FFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFF  99 Lecture 07 The history the origin of the concept of intelligence Plato (process of gaining knowledge, recollectiona and remembering) and Aristotle (potential intelligence, i.e. practical intelligence needed for virtues and cognition) the term invention Cicero the use of tests to assess intelligence and the application of statistics Sir Francis Galton The intelligence test Binet – student’s abilities (need for special assistance) Binet & Simon – attention, memory, problem-solving (it’s not possible to measure it with numbers) Therman – standardized version of Binet-Simon scale Yerkes – Army Alpha (written) and Beta Tests (picture) for determining the role in the army Wechsler – different mental abilities Intelligence The mental capacity to: learn from experiences adapt to new situations understand and handle abstract concepts use knowledge to manipulate one's environment  100 Intelligence quotient a standard measure of an individual’s intelligence level based on psychological tests dividing the mental age by the chronological age and multiplying by 100 to produce a ratio IQ deviation IQ, computed as a function of the discrepancy of an individual score from the mean (or average) score IQ scoring 40 - 54: Moderately impaired or delayed 55 - 69: Mildly impaired or delayed 70 - 79: Borderline impaired or delayed 80 - 89: Low average intelligence 90 - 109: Average 110 - 119: High average 120 - 129: Superior 130 - 144: Gifted or very advanced 145 - 160: Exceptionally gifted or highly advanced  101 Debates on IQ testing validity (expert’s viewpoint, gender) accuracy of measurement (motivational level, school quality, health status) Reliability Jenseism (biologically inherited property varied according to skin color) How many intelligencies? Spearman (two factors) general intelligence ("g") specific ability ("s") Cattell (two factors) fluid intelligence (Gf) – intelligence that we are born with and that we acquire through interacting with our environment crystallized intelligence (Gc) – inthat we acquire through our culture Cattell-Horn-Carroll General memory and learning (Gy) Broad visual perception (Gv) Broad auditory perception (Gu) Broad retrieval ability (Gr) Broad cognitive speediness (Gs) Reaction time (Gt) Hierarchical structure of intelligence  102 Components of general intelligence Fluid reasoning: the ability to think flexibly and solve problems Knowledge: a person's general understanding of a wide range of topics (crystallized intelligence) Quantitative reasoning: an individual's capacity to solve problems that involve numbers Visual-spatial processing: a person's abilities to interpret and manipulate visual information, such as putting together puzzles and copying complex shapes Working memory: the use of short-term memory such as being able to repeat a list of items Impact of general intelligence Academic achievement (strong association between general mental ability and academic achievement; 51% to 75% of achievement cannot be accounted for by the g factor alone) Job success (both general intelligence and specific mental abilities play an important role in determining career success including income and job attainment; the importance of the g factor for job success becomes greater as the complexity of the work increases) Health (correlations between intelligence and lower risks of coronary heart disease,  103 hypertension, obesity, stroke, cancers) Income (people with higher intelligence scores also tend to earn higher incomes; other factors including education, occupation, and socioeconomic background play a mediating role) Thurstone’s Primary Associative memory Mental Abilities Number facility Perceptual speed Reasoning Spatial visualization Verbal comprehension Gardner’s Multiple Visual-spatial Intelligencies Linguistic-verbal Logical-mathematical Body-kinesthetic Musical Interpersonal Intrapersonal Naturalistic Criticism on multiple intelligencies Gardner’s definition of int