Psychology Concepts and Research Methods

Psychology's Early Schools of Thought

• Structuralism focused on the structure of the human mind.
• Structuralists attempted to classify the mind's structure similarly to the periodic table of elements, using introspection regarding sensations, perceptions, and feelings.
• Introspection proved unreliable, which led to the decline of structuralism.
• Functionalism was influenced by Darwin's theory of evolution.
• Functionalists believed that the mind is adaptive.
• Smelling was important for survival for our ancestors.

Psychology's Growth as a Discipline

• The first psychology laboratory was established in Leipzig, Germany in 1879.
• Gestalt psychology emphasizes that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts.
• Key perspectives in psychology include evolutionary, biological, behavioral, cognitive, psychodynamic, humanistic, and sociocultural.

Categories of Research Methods

• Quantitative methods involve collecting and analyzing numerical data to describe, predict, or control variables of interest.
• Qualitative methods involve collecting, analyzing, and interpreting non-numerical data.
• Mixed methods combine qualitative and quantitative research to gain a more thorough understanding of a phenomenon.

Scientific Method

• The scientific method follows steps for conducting research, including observation, forming questions, research, creating a hypothesis, experimentation, analysis, drawing conclusions, and finally reporting the results.

Scientific Method: Research Question & Hypotheses

• Research Question: Will Lynter impact allergy symptoms in older adults?
• Hypothesis(0/Null): Lynter will NOT reduce allergy symptoms in older adults.
• Hypothesis(1/Alternate): Lynter will reduce allergy symptoms in older adults.

Scientific Method: Variables

• Independent Variable: The variable that is manipulated (Lynter Pill).
• Dependent Variable: The variable that is measured (allergy symptoms).
• Operational Definition: describes a concept in terms of procedures, actions, and processes used to observe and measure it.

Scientific Method: Random Sampling

• Population: group being studied (older adults).
• Sample: portion of the population (100 older adults).
• Random Sample: every person in the population has an equal chance of being selected for the sample. (lottery or random drawing).

Scientific Method: Random Assignment

• Experimental Group: receives the independent variable (Lynter pill).
• Control Group: receives the placebo (sugar pill).
• Random Assignment: each person has an equal chance of being in either group.

Scientific Method: Confounding Variables

• Confounding Variable: a variable that influences the independent and/or dependent variables, potentially impacting the outcome. (e.g., unintentional variations in speech or blinking rates during trials).

Measures of Central Tendency

• Mean: average value.
• Median: middle value in an ordered set..
• Mode: value that occurs most often.
• Range: difference between smallest and largest values.

Selecting a Measure of Central Tendency

• Outliers can influence the mean but not the median or mode, thus the choice of a measure of central tendency depends on the data.

Statistics

• Descriptive Statistics: involve summarizing data using measures like mean, median, mode, range, and standard deviation.
• Inferential Statistics: allow for making inferences about a population based on sample data. (t-tests, ANOVA, Chi-square tests are examples of inferential analyses).

Statistical Significance

• Results are statistically significant when chance is less likely than 5% to be the cause of the result. (0.05 or less is frequently used).

Normal Distribution

• Illustrates the distribution of scores in a population, including mean and standard deviation.
• Displays the normal curve, including percentage of data falling within particular ranges.

Skewed Distributions

• Skewed Distributions are distributions that are not symmetrical.
• A distribution which falls to the left is considered negatively skewed and a distribution which falls to the right is positively skewed.

Correlation

• Correlation measures the relationship between two variables, not necessarily cause-and-effect.
• Correlation coefficient (Pearson's r): ranges from -1 to +1; closer to 0 indicates a weaker relation.

Correlation Scatterplots

• Perfect positive correlation shows a trend of increasing values; perfect negative correlation shows a downward trend and zero correlation shows no trend.
• Strong positive and strong negative correlation shows a high correlation, while weak positive and weak negative correlation shows a low correlation.

General Feedback: SODAS

• Use a different color than the answer to help to improve organization.
• Give clear specific feedback on organization, definition or application.
• Organize your answers in the correct order.
• Define the term used in the prompt.
• Apply the concept to a given scenario.
• Use synonyms to avoid repeating words.

AP Scoring

• Specific point values, criteria, and examples are provided for each point.

Heredity & Environment

• Heredity refers to predisposed characteristics.
• Environmental factors include family interactions and education.
• Teratogens are environmental factors that negatively affect development (alcohol, nicotine, certain medications or diseases).

Twins

• Identical (monozygotic) twins arise from a single zygote that splits.
• Fraternal (dizygotic) twins come from two separate zygotes.

Graphic Organizer

• The graphic organizer illustrates the Central Nervous Systems and its divisions, including Peripheral Nervous System which has somatic and autonomic divisions. (autonomic NS has sympathetic and parasympathetic systems).

Homeostasis

• Homeostasis is when the body regulates its internal processes to maintain stability.

Parasympathetic & Sympathetic NS

• Parasympathetic NS is active during rest.
• Sympathetic NS is active in response to a stressor or emergency.

AP Tips on Nervous Systems: Key Words

• Key words are provided for the different divisions of the nervous system to help recall appropriate terms.

Our Brains are Composed of Neurons and Glial Cells

• Glial cells assist in proper neuron development.

3 Types of Neurons

• Afferent (sensory) neurons sense stimuli and send signals to the CNS.
• Efferent (motor) neurons transmit impulses from the CNS to the rest of the body.
• Interneurons facilitate communication between sensory and motor neurons.

Functions

• The different parts of a neuron (dendrites, cell body, nucleus, axon) and their functions are explained.

Action Potential & All-or-None Principle

• Action potentials are electrical charges that move along the axon.
• They either fire or don't fire; this follows the all-or-none principle, based on meeting a threshold.
• Refractory period follows the neuron firing.

Neurotransmitters

• Neurotransmitters are chemicals released from one neuron to another.
• Excitatory Neurotransmitters increase the likelihood a neuron will fire.
• Inhibitory Neurotransmitters decrease the likelihood a neuron will fire.

Drugs

• Agonists enhance the effect of neurotransmitters.
• Antagonists reduce the effect of neurotransmitters.

Graphic Organizer: Neurotransmitters & Drugs

• This graphic organizer lists various neurotransmitters (excitatory/inhibitory) and their functions.

Brain Structures & Functions: Cerebrum

• The left hemisphere is responsible for receiving sensory information from the right side of the body. Its functions include speech, language, and comprehension, as well as analysis and calculations.
• The right hemisphere is responsible for receiving sensory information from the left side of the body, including spatial and contextual perception and creative thinking.
• The Corpus Callosum is the bundle of nerve fibers that connects the left and right hemispheres of the brain.

Structures & Functions

• Structures in the brain and their related functions are described.

Areas of the brain that affect language

• Broca's area is associated with speech production.
• Wernicke's area is associated with speech comprehension.
• Damage to these areas can result in aphasia.

Lateralization of Brain Function

• Lateralization is the tendency for some neural functions to be specialized to one side of the brain or the other.

Structures & Functions: Cerebral Cortex

• Frontal Lobe: regulates social behavior, cognition, and executive function; includes Broca's area, key for speech production.
• Parietal Lobe: processes sensory information (pain, pressure, touch), body sensation; includes parts for spatial awareness.
• Occipital Lobe: processes visual information, including shapes, colors, and locations.
• *Temporal Lobe: Processes auditory information; includes Wernicke's area for language comprehension; and the hippocampus, critical for memory formation.

Brain Structure & Function: Reticular Formation

• The reticular formation is a pencil-shaped bundle of nerve cells in the core of the brain stem.
• Its function is to maintain a state of alertness and to monitor incoming sensory information.

Brain Structure & Function: Pons

• The pons is located above the medulla.
• It regulates sleep and dreaming.
• It acts as a bridge between the brain stem and cerebellum.

Brain Structure & Function: Cerebellum

• The cerebellum ("little brain") regulates balance, coordination of movement, and procedural learning.

Brain Structure & Function: Medulla Oblongata

• The medulla oblongata is at the lower portion of the brain stem functions to regulate breathing, blood pressure and heart rate and other essential body functions.

Brain Structure & Function: Hippocampus

• The hippocampus is involved in creating and storing long-term memories.

Brain Structure & Function: Amygdala

• The amygdala regulates emotions, judgment, and impulses.

Brain Structure & Function: Thalamus

• The thalamus is the relay station for sensory information to the cerebral cortex, except for smells.

Brain Structure & Function: Hypothalamus

• The hypothalamus is below the thalamus.
• It regulates the autonomic nervous system.
• It controls body functions including temperature, hunger, thirst, and emotional activity.

Consciousness

• Consciousness is awareness of oneself, feelings, environment (sensations), and memories.

Altered States of Consciousness

• Many ways that consciousness can be altered outside of normal waking states.

States of Consciousness

• Consciousness occurs with varying degrees of awareness.
• Sleep and wakefulness are two forms of consciousness.
• Drugs can alter consciousness, such as depressants (reduce neural activity) or stimulants (excite neural activity).

Sleep

• Sleep is a periodic, natural form of loss of consciousness.
• It differs from unconsciousness from a coma or anesthesia or hibernation

Circadian Rhythm

• Circadian rhythm is a biological process that regulates the sleep-wake cycle, usually about 24 hours. It's affected by factors such as temperature, sleepiness, and wakefulness.

Sleep Studies

• Electroencephalography (EEG) electrodes measure brain activity and muscle movements.
• These electrodes are used to learn more about sleep stages.

Stages of Sleep

• Sleep generally occurs in stages, with the different stages being measured and observed.

Paradoxical REM sleep

• REM sleep has characteristics similar to wakefulness, yet the body is relaxed.
• Dreaming commonly occurs in REM sleep.
• Deprivation of REM sleep can lead to REM rebound.

Sleep Disorders & Treatments

• Disorders like insomnia, sleep apnea, night terrors, and narcolepsy are described, including their rates, descriptions, and effects.

Stimulus

• A stimulus is any object or event that elicits a sensory or behavioral response.

Basic Definitions

• Sensation is the process of detecting physical energy (Light, Sound, Smells, Taste, Touch)
• Perception is the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information.

Signal Detection Theory

• Detection thresholds change with factors (e.g., fatigue, attention, expectations).

Sensory Adaptation

• Sensory adaptation involves decreasing sensitivity to a stimulus when it is unchanging.

Thresholds

• Absolute Threshold: smallest amount of stimulus that can be detected half the time.
• Difference Threshold: difference between two stimuli that a person can detect half the time.
• Just Noticeable Difference (JND): difference thresholds must be low enough such that a person detects small changes.
• Weber's Law: difference thresholds increase in proportion to the size of the stimulus.

Absolute Thresholds

• Values (e.g., touch, hearing, sight, smell, taste) and their thresholds are given.

Transmission of Sensory Information

• Sensory information from receptors to the brain is encoded.
• Receptors transduce energy to electrochemical energy for neurons.

Functions

• Specific functions of parts of the eye (iris, pupil, cornea, lens, retina) and their roles.

How Vision Works

• Light travels through the eye to the retina.
• The retina converts light into electrical signals. These signals are then transmitted to the brain for visual interpretation.

Monocular & Binocular Cues

• Monocular cues use one eye; cues include relative size, linear perspective, texture gradient, motion parallax.
• Binocular cues use 2 eyes; cues include vergence (equal movement) and accommodation (focus).

Retinal Disparity

• Images are slightly different in the left and right eyes.
• This difference is used to perceive depth and distance.

Theories of Vision

• Trichromatic Theory: three types of photoreceptors to detect color in the retina.
• Opponent-Process Theory: color processing occurs in cells in the retina and thalamus, and these can cause afterimages.

Functions

• The structures involved in hearing, including the eardrum, hammer, anvil, stirrup, cochlea, and organ of Corti are all described.

How Audition Works

• Sound vibrations travel through the ear's structures.
• Hair cells inside the cochlea convert vibrations into electrical signals. These signals are sent to the brain, resulting in the perception of sound.

Theories of Audition/Pitch Perception

• Place Theory: different sound frequencies stimulate different sites on the basilar membrane in the inner ear, resulting in different pitch perceptions.
• Frequency theory: the frequency of auditory nerve firing correlates to the pitch of a sound.
• Volley principle modifies frequency theory, as a cluster of neurons fire in rapid succession, producing a "volley" of impulses, creating a greater range of pitch perception.

Visual Perception

• Visual perception constancies include maintaining stable perception of size, shape, and color despite variation in stimuli.

Top Down & Bottom Up Processing

• Bottom-up processing: sensory data is detected, and then organized into a perception.
• Top-down processing: higher-level mental processes (expectations, beliefs, values, memories) help explain/interpret sensory data.

Schemas & Perceptual Sets

• Schemas are sets of assumptions and mental tendencies that filter perceptions.
• Perceptual sets are influenced by internal (schemas) and external factors (e.g., contexts, experiences, cultural factors), influencing expectations and thus perceptions.

Perception & Culture

• Culture and prior experiences may influence perceptual interpretation.

Gestalt Principles

• Grouping principles that explain how people perceive objects as a whole, rather than as individual parts.
• These include proximity, similarity, closure, continuity, and figure-ground.

Closure, Proximity

• Gestalt principles that help people perceive a pattern from visual elements.

Similarity, Continuity & Figure Ground

• Gestalt principles that help people perceive objects in relations or context.

Concepts & Prototypes

• Formal concepts have clear characteristics, agreed-upon rules, and fixed meanings.
• Natural concepts are based on examples or prototypes, which are mental images of the "best" or most representative examples.

Prototypes

• Prototypes serve as ideals for concepts.
• They play a role in creating schemas.
• Schemas can be changed or altered.

Algorithms

• Algorithms are sets of steps that solve problems by trying all possible and logical paths until one path leads to the correct solution.

Heuristics

• Heuristics are mental shortcuts or general rules that individuals use in decision-making. Also called rules of thumb, heuristics are based on our experiences.
• They can be quick, satisfactory solutions in complex situations or problem scenarios where time/resources may be limited.

Availability Heuristics

• Availability heuristics involve relying upon easily recalled or vivid memories when making judgments.

Representative Heuristics

• Representative heuristics are based on prior experiences and categories or stereotypes.

Heuristics

• Heuristics address problems using mental shortcuts for judgments.
• They can sometimes lead to errors in judgment.

Priming & Framing

• Priming occurs when a prior related stimulus influences subsequent information processing; subjects may not recognize the relationship.
• Framing is when people make decisions based on how the information is structured or phrased instead of relying upon the relevant details.

Poor Decision-Making Cognitive Processes

• Gambler's Fallacy: an event happening more frequently or less frequently because of the results of preceding events.
• Sunk-Cost Fallacy: Continuing a strategy or course of action (even when it's not helpful or effective), because of the heavy investment made previously.

Executive Functions

• Executive functions are the cognitive processes used to carry out goal-oriented actions.
• They include the ability to organize, plan, and control impulses to manage emotions and attention. This includes self-monitoring and flexibility to adjust to varying circumstances.
• These functions are critical for goal-directed behavior and critical thinking processes.

Creativity

• Convergent thinking: Narrowing down to a single best solution.
• Divergent thinking: exploring various solutions.
• Insight: Sudden and complete comprehension of the solution to a problem.
• Functional fixedness: limiting how one can use an item because of its prior use.

Memory

• Memories for events and knowledge differ in how they are processed or retrieved by the brain.

Effortful v. Automatic Processing

• Effortful processing requires conscious attention and effort.
• Automatic processing functions outside of conscious control, processing incidental information (time, frequency, and location) and well-learned information.

Deep v. Shallow Processing

• Shallow processing emphasizes structure or appearance.
• Deep processing emphasizes meaning and relationships which leads to better memory.

Metacognition

• Metacognition refers to one's knowledge of one's own cognitive abilities and processes. This involves understanding one's own cognitive processes.

Review: Long-term Potentiation

• Long-term potentiation, or LTP, is a process in which synaptic connections grow stronger as the result of ongoing activation.
• LTP is a biological process thought to be involved in memory processes.

Review Multi-Store Model of Memory

• Sensory memory is a brief, initial storage of incoming information.
• Short-term memory (STM) temporarily holds information, and long-term memory (LTM) holds information more permanently.
• There are processes for encoding, storing and retrieving information in these different stages.

Review Levels of Processing Model

• Levels of processing model emphasizes depth of processing; Deeper processing (meaning) yields better retention.

Encoding

• Encoding is a process whereby information is stored into memory.
• Encoding includes visual, acoustic, and semantic types.
• Semantic encoding often yields the most information, combining and focusing on the meaning of data which is then stored in memory
• Methods of encoding, visual, acoustic and semantic each offer differing levels of retention.

Memory Consolidation

• Memory consolidation transforms temporary memories into long-lasting ones.
• This process is considered important for moving memories from short-term storage to permanent long-term storage
• Stability is achieved and thus, information is held more permanently.

Primacy & Recency

• Information presented first or last is generally remembered better.

Storage

• Storage is the process of holding information encoded into memory.
• Schemas are mental models that organize information and can also be used to organize/organize information into a more stable and lasting format.

Retrieval

• Retrieval is the process of getting information from memory.
• Recall and recognition are retrieval methods.
• The "Tip of the Tongue Phenomenon" refers to when an individual knows a familiar word but can't access a particular word.

False Memories

• False memories are inaccurate recollections of past events.
• Biases, including mental biases, can affect how people interpret or recall events.
• Suggestion from others can affect memories.

Strategies to Improve Memory

• Strategies may include spacing, chunking, elaboration, and mnemonics.

Ebbinghaus's Forgetting Curve

• Forgetting occurs rapidly after learning, and then levels off over time.
• The forgetting curve shows how quickly we forget information over time.
• Spacing out studying improves long-term retention.

Help with Retrieval

• Retrieval cues, priming, distributed practice, mnemonics, state-dependent memory, and context-dependent memory are strategies to aid memory retrieval.

Forgetting: Encoding Failure & Storage Decay

• Forgetting may be due to encoding failure during the effortful processing stage, when not enough attention is paid and thus information is not effectively recorded in memory.
• Storage decay refers to the fading of stored connections over time which leads to forgetting.

Forgetting: Types of Amnesia

• Anterograde amnesia results in the inability to form new memories, and retrograde amnesia results in the inability to recall prior memories prior to the event that caused the memory loss.

Forgetting: Interference

• Proactive interference occurs when prior learning interferes with new learning.
• Retroactive interference occurs when new learning interferes with the recall of old information.

Forgetting: CUES & INTERFERENCE

• Cues, such as smells, and other relevant external stimuli or information, can affect memory retrieval (e.g., smell of food, or first letter of a word).
• Interferences may result from prior learning that interferes with recall of newly encountered information.
• Sigmund Freud's theory of repression involves memories becoming forgotten to mitigate distress. Misinformation can also influence our recall of events.

Psychodynamic Perspective

• Psychodynamic theories include the belief that memories may be repressed as a form of defense against distress.
• Information or memories can be repressed, to diminish or avoid stress.

Accuracy of Memories

• Memory accuracy can be affected by biases, misinformation, memory distortions (construction & inflation). -Diseases, such as Alzheimer's, can play a role in the accuracy of memories.

Theories of Intelligence: Spearman's g

• Spearman's g is a general intelligence that underlies all mental abilities;
• Intelligence can be measured and is represented by a g-factor.

Theories of Intelligence: Gardner's Multiple Intelligences

• Multiple intelligences suggest that human intelligence is diverse in types and is not limited to academic ability. (visual-spatial, linguistic-verbal, etc.).

Theories of Intelligence: Sternberg's Triarchic Theory

• Sternberg's Triarchic theory of intelligence posits three major domains of intelligence: 1) Analytical intelligence—problem-solving skills/academic ability), (2) Creative intelligence—developing new concepts and solutions), and (3) Practical intelligence—applying knowledge to everyday situations.

Theories of Intelligence: Crystallized & Fluid Intelligence

• Crystallized intelligence is based upon knowledge and experiences that are learned over time.
• Fluid intelligence is the ability to reason and solve problems without relying on prior experiences.

Intelligence Quotient (IQ) Wechsler

• Intelligence Quotient (IQ) scores are derived from psychological tests.
• Norms and ranges of IQ scores may vary depending on the age of the test-takers.

Measuring Intelligence

• Standardized procedures and consistent environments are important for reliability and validity in intelligence assessments.
• Validity refers to the extent to which a measuring tool measures what it is supposed to measure.
• Reliability refers to consistent results that are yielded by the measuring tool.

Intelligence Testing: Reliability & Validity

• Construct validity assesses how well a test measures the construct (concept) it intends to measure.
• Predictive validity explores whether a test score can forecast future outcomes or behaviors.
• Reliability, using consistent procedures and conditions, yields similar scores when given multiple times.

Systemic Issues with Intelligence Assessments

• Societal and environmental factors may affect IQ scores.
• Biases and cultural variables may impact test interpretations and individual scores.
• Social inequalities may negatively influence individuals/groups' IQ scores.

Stereotype Threat

• Stereotype threat is a social identity threat that occurs when one is at risk of confirming negative stereotypes about their social group.

Review: Memory

• Memory involves encoding, storage, and retrieval processes.

Test your understanding of key concepts in psychology, including structuralism, Gestalt psychology, and research methodologies. This quiz covers important principles such as introspection, hypotheses, and the role of qualitative and quantitative methods in psychological research.