Psychology Chapter on Emotion and Decision-Making
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Questions and Answers

What effect does increased activation in the nucleus accumbens have on mood?

  • It increases positive affect. (correct)
  • It leads to emotional regulation.
  • It causes attention narrowing.
  • It dampens negative affect.

Which of the following is a limitation of emotion regulation research?

  • Most people effectively use emotion-regulation strategies without training.
  • Distinct separation between emotion generation and regulation is well defined.
  • Behavioral strategies are universally effective.
  • Effectiveness is influenced by complex individual and situational interactions. (correct)

How does mood impact the scope of attention?

  • Mood has no impact on attention.
  • Negative mood results in a narrower scope of attention. (correct)
  • Positive mood leads to a narrower focus of attention.
  • Negative mood corresponds with a wider scope of attention.

What is the primary relationship between attention and memory?

<p>Attention determines the focus of what you remember. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement about emotional regulation strategies is true?

<p>Many people do not use emotion-regulation strategies, even when trained. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the relationship between negative moods and decision-making?

<p>Negative moods are correlated with pessimism and risk-aversion. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What effect do positive mood states have on decision-making?

<p>They encourage optimism and risk-seeking. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are integral emotions in decision-making?

<p>Emotions elicited by making judgments or decisions. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is myopic misery in the context of decision-making?

<p>An excessive focus on replacing lost rewards. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do anxious individuals typically approach decision-making?

<p>They are more inclined to be risk-averse. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements describes incidental emotions?

<p>They arise during a judgment that is unrelated to the situation. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the general goal of individuals regarding their mood states?

<p>To avoid negative feelings and increase positive feelings. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following moods is correlated with risk-seeking behavior?

<p>Sadness (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of biases can attentional training help to reduce?

<p>Attentional biases (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a potential risk factor for developing major depressive disorder?

<p>Dysfunctional negative attitudes (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which study investigated the effects of attentional training on anxiety levels?

<p>MacLeod et al. (2002) (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic of interpretive biases?

<p>They contribute to negative thoughts. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following studies suggests a connection between attentional biases and anxiety levels?

<p>Matthews and MacLeod (2002) (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which outcome remains to be determined regarding attentional training?

<p>It can reduce automatic attentional biases. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Changing which type of biases can lead to altered anxiety levels?

<p>Interpretive biases (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of procedure is referred to as ATT?

<p>Attention Training Procedure (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one characteristic of monocular cues in depth perception?

<p>They include linear perspective and motion parallax (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which factor is NOT part of how information from different depth cues is combined?

<p>Magnitude (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does amblyopia affect depth perception?

<p>Impairs stereopsis depth perception (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a result of size constancy in perception?

<p>Objects retain apparent size despite distance changes (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the size-distance invariance hypothesis?

<p>Retinal size and perceived distance are proportional (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is true about binocular cues?

<p>They are based on differences between two retinal images (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a common misunderstanding concerning colour constancy?

<p>It varies significantly among different individuals (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which cue is an example of monocular depth perception?

<p>Interposition (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the narrative self according to Humphrey?

<p>It aids in navigating the social world. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What differentiates the easy problems from the hard problems of consciousness, according to Chalmers?

<p>Easy problems are about functions carried out by conscious systems, while hard problems address the nature of consciousness itself. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is described as the central mystery regarding consciousness?

<p>Why conscious experience arises from unconscious functions. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the author describe visual experience in relation to consciousness?

<p>It is similar to internal processes and comparable to dreams. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What question does Chalmers raise regarding consciousness and information processing?

<p>How information processing can occur without any conscious experience. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does introspection suggest about the relationship between conscious thoughts and actions?

<p>Conscious thoughts appear to cause actions. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is suggested by the phrase 'stream of visual consciousness'?

<p>The outside world and our experience of it are integrated processes. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What aspect of consciousness does Velmans highlight regarding visual experience?

<p>It is more internally driven than previously assumed. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What types of visual information do cones primarily process?

<p>Colour and detail perception (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of rods in human vision?

<p>Vision in dim light (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which visual area is primarily responsible for motion perception?

<p>V5 (MT in humans) (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What aspect of the visual cortex is emphasized in Zeki's functional specialization theory?

<p>Specialization for distinct visual processing tasks (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements is correct about ganglion cells?

<p>They can receive input from either rods or cones. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the functional specialization theory suggest about V1 and V2?

<p>They are involved in basic visual processing. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In which part of the retina are rods primarily located?

<p>In the periphery (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the 'binding problem' in vision?

<p>Understanding how different visual features are combined into a single perception (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which area in the visual cortex is linked to face perception?

<p>OFA (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one key criticism of Zeki's functional specialization theory?

<p>The assumption that visual brain areas are highly specialized (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Reinterpretation

A strategy that involves changing how you think about a situation to reduce negative emotions. For example, you might tell yourself "This is fine" or "It's just a movie, nobody actually got hurt."

Distancing

A strategy to reduce negative emotions by mentally distancing yourself from the situation. For example, you might think of the situation as a movie or a story.

Emotion regulation

The ability to manage and control emotional responses.

Narrow attention

The tendency to focus on a limited range of information when in a negative mood. This is like having "tunnel vision" and missing out on other details.

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Broad attention

The ability to pay attention to a wider range of information when in a positive mood. This allows for a more comprehensive view of the situation.

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Attentional Bias

Paying more attention to negative or threatening information, even when it's not relevant.

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Interpretive Bias

Interpreting events in a consistently negative way, even when there's no evidence to support it.

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Attentional Training

A type of therapy that aims to reduce negative attentional bias by training people to focus on positive information.

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Dysfunctional Attitude Scale

A scale that measures negative thoughts and attitudes, often used to assess depression severity.

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Changing Interpretations

Research suggests that changing how you interpret events can reduce anxiety levels.

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Attention Bias and Anxiety

Attentional biases can influence how anxious someone feels.

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Negative Attitudes and Depression

Negative attitudes contribute to the development of major depression.

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Attention Training Benefits

Training your attention can reduce anxiety.

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Utilitarian vs. Deontological Judgments

Thoughts and feelings can influence decisions in a similar way as moral rules, but they can happen at the same time (Bialek & De Neys, 2017).

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Mood and Decisions

Different mood states (like anger, sadness, anxiety, or feeling positive) can alter the way we make judgments and decisions.

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Personality and Mood

Personality traits tend to be linked to mood states, which can affect decision-making.

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Negative Moods and Decisions

When someone feels negative, they are more likely to think pessimistically and avoid risks.

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Positive Moods and Decisions

When someone feels positive, they are more likely to think optimistically and take risks.

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Integral Emotions

Emotions directly related to making decisions or judgments. For example, feeling good about proposing to your partner.

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Incidental Emotions

Emotions experienced during a decision or judgment that aren't directly related to the situation. For example, feeling good about your partner saying yes, so you decide to listen to a donation pitch.

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Anxiety and Sadness

Anxiety and sadness can influence decision-making. Anxious people might avoid risks, while sad people might seek them out.

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Rods

Photoreceptor cells in the retina, responsible for detecting dim light and movement. Concentrated in the periphery of the retina.

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Cones

Photoreceptor cells in the retina, responsible for detecting color and detail. Concentrated in the fovea.

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Transduction

The process by which light energy is converted into a neural signal.

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Visual cortical areas

Specialized areas in the visual cortex responsible for processing different aspects of visual information.

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Functional specialization theory

The theory that proposes distinct brain regions are specialized for processing specific visual information, such as color, motion, or form.

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V5 (MT)

The visual area in the brain responsible for motion perception.

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LOC

The visual area in the brain responsible for object perception.

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FFA

The visual area in the brain responsible for face perception.

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Binding problem

The brain's ability to integrate different sensory information, such as color, shape, and motion, to create a complete perception.

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Coding

The process by which retinal ganglion cells transmit information to the visual cortex.

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What is Visual Perception?

Visual perception is the ability to see and interpret our surroundings. It involves complex processes that allow us to perceive depth, size, and colour.

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What are Monocular Depth Cues?

They help us perceive depth without needing both eyes. Examples are linear perspective, texture, interposition, familiar size, blur, and motion parallax.

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What is Linear Perspective?

This is when objects appear to converge as they get further away, like parallel lines on a road.

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What is Texture Gradient?

Objects that are closer appear more detailed, while objects that are further away appear blurry or less detailed.

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What is Interposition?

When one object partially hides another, the hidden object appears further away. This is called interposition.

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What is Familiar Size?

Objects that we know the size of can help us estimate their distance. For example, a car that appears small is likely farther away than one that looks large.

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What is Atmospheric Perspective?

This refers to the blurriness of objects that are further away. It's a cue that helps us perceive depth.

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What is Motion Parallax?

This is a depth cue based on the movement of our eyes. As we move, objects closer to us seem to move more rapidly in the opposite direction than objects that are further away.

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Narrative self

The feeling of having a self, often referred to as the 'I', is a consequence of having developed a theory of mind, where we are aware of our own thoughts and feelings and can predict those of others.

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Visual consciousness

The idea that the 'outside world' is a projection of our internal visual consciousness, meaning that what we see is a mental representation of what's happening in the real world.

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Easy vs. Hard problem of consciousness

The easy problems of consciousness focus on the functions of the brain and how it processes information, while the hard problem explains why there is subjective experience, or what it feels like to be a conscious being.

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Central mystery of consciousness

The fundamental mystery surrounding consciousness is how information processing by the brain translates into subjective experiences, such as seeing colors or feeling emotions.

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Does consciousness animate the body?

The idea that conscious thoughts cause actions is an illusion, as the relationship between consciousness and action is more complex and involves a variety of interacting brain mechanisms.

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Theory of mind

The ability to understand that others have thoughts, feelings, and beliefs that are different from our own, crucial for social interactions.

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Chalmers' argument

A philosophical argument that consciousness is fundamentally inexplicable by scientific methods because it involves subjective experience, which cannot be reduced to physical processes.

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Non-materialist view of consciousness

The belief that consciousness exists independently of any physical processes, suggesting that it is a non-material phenomenon.

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Study Notes

Language Study Notes

  • Orthography is the study of word letters and word spelling
  • Phonology is the study of word sounds and parts of words
  • Semantics is the meaning conveyed by words, phrases, and sentences
  • Lexicon is the vocabulary and knowledge of a language, e.g., vocabulary of a person
  • Prosody is the rhythm, stress, and intonation of speech, providing important information beyond a sentence's literal word meaning
  • Syntax is the arrangement of words and phrases to create well-formed sentences
  • Morphology is the study of the internal structure of words
  • Discourse refers to written, spoken, and signed communication (formal or informal)

Cognitive Neuroscience Study Notes

  • Brodmann mapped cell structure and distribution in the brain (first accurate map).
  • Bullmore and Sporns described the principle of cost control within the brain - it has to cope with limited space, connections, neuron die, etc.
  • Different techniques are used to measure cognitive functions in different parts of the brain (spatial/temporal resolutions)
  • EEG (electroencephalography), is used to measure event-related potentials
  • PET (positron emission tomography) is a technique
  • fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging) is a technique
  • MEG (magnetoencephalography) is a technique
  • TMS (transcranial magnetic stimulation) is a technique.
  • Computational modelling and artificial intelligence can also be applied to cognition

Problem Solving Study Notes

  • Problems require a method to bridge a gap between conflicting states or goals.
  • Problem solving is a conscious, multi-step process.
  • Analogical problem solving: constantly using past experiences and knowledge to solve new problems. This involves finding similarities between new and past problems; we use previous solutions effectively in new contexts
  • Expertise: specialised knowledge of a specific area in the brain which plays a key role in solving problems.
  • Heuristics are mental shortcuts that simplify decision-making; however, they can occasionally lead to mistakes
  • Cognitive miserliness: someone who is economical with their time and effort when performing a thinking task,
  • Functional fixedness is the inflexible focus on the usual function of an object to the exclusion of other potential uses; this can be overcome by recognizing non-obvious features.
  • Representational change theory: explains how changing a problem’s representation can solve roadblocks in problem solving; it can involve relaxed constraints or re-encoding ideas or elaboration

Everyday Memory Study Notes

  • Everyday memory involves memory for remote events, social factors, and motivations
  • Autobiographical memory involves memories of personal significance that involve mentalising (the ability to think about your own mental states and those of others)
  • Autobiographical memories are likely stored at multiple areas in the brain, unlike memories of facts which are mainly stored in the medial temporal lobe (MTL)
  • Memories can be strongly influenced by time, emotions, and context, which can lead to inaccuracies in recall or biases
  • Distinctions can be made between implicit and explicit memories; implicit memory does not involve conscious retrieval, and can be detected through changes in behaviour rather than through asking someone to explicitly retrieve the memory.
  • Memories can be distorted by misinformation

Consciousness Study Notes

  • Consciousness can be defined as subjective experience.
  • Chalmers distinguishes between ‘easy’ and ‘hard’ problems; easy problems concern observable functions, while ‘hard’ problems concern how these functions come together to produce a subjective experience.
  • The theory of apparent mental causation (AMCA) outlines a theory about perception of 'choice' based on temporal ordering of events
  • The multi-voxel pattern analysis (MVPA) technique uses fMRI to determine brain areas involved in consciousness, and it can predict a decision before people are aware of it.

Memory Study Notes

  • Working memory is a system that retains information for temporary use in tasks.
  • It has limited capacity and the information is lost through displacement.
  • Short-term memory (STM) is a component of working memory, specifically referring to retaining information for performing simple cognitive tasks
  • Neuropsychological studies of patients with brain damage have shown that short-term and long-term memory are separable abilities.
  • Three memory stores exist: sensory, short term, and long term memory. Sensory memory temporarily stores information, short-term memory processes and stores information for brief periods, whereas long-term memory stores information for extended periods
  • The levels-of-processing theory proposes that deeper processing of information leads to better recall.
  • Retrieval effects:
  • Testing effect: retrieval attempts improve long-term memory.
  • Encoding specificity: when retrieval conditions match encoding, retrieval will be facilitated; in contrast, if retrieval conditions are not compatible with encoding, there will be less retrieval.
  • Proactive interference: previous learning impedes learning of new information.
  • Retroactive interference: recently learned information impedes recall of previously learned material.
  • There are several different models of memory, including the multicomponent model of working memory, emphasizing the component roles of different structures for different tasks rather than retaining everything at once.

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This quiz delves into the complex interactions between mood and decision-making processes. It explores topics such as emotion regulation, the effects of mood on attention, and how emotional states influence choices. Test your understanding of these critical psychological concepts.

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