Psychology Chapter on Attitudes and Effects

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Questions and Answers

Which factor is NOT associated with higher levels of intrinsic motivation?

Enjoyment of the task

External rewards (correct)

Challenge preference

Feeling of mastery

What characteristic is associated with individuals who have a high motivation to achieve?

Very structured and focused (correct)

Lack of self-discipline

Disorganized and chaotic

Low interest in achievement

What are the emotional benefits of having a strong motivation to belong?

Increased levels of happiness and strong relationships (correct)

Decreased motivation for social interaction

Increased likelihood of health risks

Higher rates of social anxiety

How does the perception of organizational support impact motivation?

It can increase intrinsic motivation. Signup and view all the answers

What is a potential negative effect of spending more time on social media?

Higher levels of social comparison Signup and view all the answers

What is the term used to describe the cultural expectations on how to display emotions?

Display Rules/Norms Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following theories suggests that physiological arousal and cognitive responses occur simultaneously?

Cannon-Bard Theory Signup and view all the answers

Which brain structure is primarily associated with processing fear and anger?

Amygdala Signup and view all the answers

What is a Duchenne Smile characterized by?

Creasing around the eyes and relaxed lips Signup and view all the answers

Which self-conscious emotion is associated with a sudden, unexpected disclosure of information?

Embarrassment Signup and view all the answers

What effect does reappraisal have on emotional responses?

It can change the reaction to the emotional stimulus. Signup and view all the answers

In the context of emotion theories, what does the Schachter-Singer theory emphasize?

Conscious identification of the cause of arousal informs emotional experience. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following emotions is considered a base emotion?

Sadness Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary focus of Social Comparison Theory?

Understanding ourselves by comparing to others Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the Halo Effect?

Assuming a person with one good trait has multiple good traits Signup and view all the answers

What does Cognitive Dissonance refer to?

Discomfort from holding conflicting ideas Signup and view all the answers

Which component is NOT part of the three components of attitudes?

Emotional Signup and view all the answers

What effect does Group Polarization describe?

Group consensus leading to extreme views Signup and view all the answers

What is the outcome of Subtyping according to stereotypes?

Creation of exceptions to existing stereotypes Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'Ostrich Bias' refer to in decision-making?

Ignoring negative information to avoid discomfort Signup and view all the answers

In the Elaboration Likelihood Model, what distinguishes the central route from the peripheral route?

Attention to message content vs. delivery method Signup and view all the answers

How does the Matching Hypothesis apply to relationship formation?

People tend to partner with others of similar attractiveness Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of 'Anticipated Regret' in decision-making?

A false belief about future feelings of remorse Signup and view all the answers

What role does the 'Fundamental Attribution Error' play in explaining behavior?

It suggests an overemphasis on personal characteristics over situational factors. Signup and view all the answers

What does the concept of 'Deindividuation' imply in group settings?

Loss of personal identity in favor of group identity Signup and view all the answers

What is a key feature of the 'Door in the Face' technique?

Making a ridiculous demand followed by a more reasonable one Signup and view all the answers

What does 'Reciprocal Altruism' involve in social behavior?

Expecting future help in exchange for current assistance Signup and view all the answers

Which theory suggests that humans learn language through interaction with their environment?

Sociocultural Signup and view all the answers

What is an example of overextension in language errors?

Calling every utensil a fork Signup and view all the answers

Which term refers to the smallest unit of meaning in language?

Morpheme Signup and view all the answers

According to the Yerkes-Dodson Law, what is the optimum level of arousal for performance?

Moderate arousal Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic of intrinsic motivation?

Engaging in behavior for personal satisfaction Signup and view all the answers

What is the critical distinction between inductive and deductive reasoning?

Deductive reasoning leads to specific conclusions from general statements. Signup and view all the answers

What concept refers to the phenomenon where people are less likely to help when more bystanders are present?

Bystander Effect Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a component of language according to the content provided?

Cognition Signup and view all the answers

What is a component of the self-determination theory?

Need for autonomy Signup and view all the answers

What does the concept of 'functional fixedness' refer to in problem-solving?

Limiting the use of an object to its traditional function Signup and view all the answers

How does 'glucostatic theory' explain hunger motivation?

Specific neurons respond to glucose levels in the brain. Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'connotation' refer to in the context of language?

The emotional or personal association of a word. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a potential consequence of stress as noted in the content?

Increase in food consumption Signup and view all the answers

What does the theory of 'drive reduction' focus on in terms of motivation?

The satisfaction of physiological needs. Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Important Terms

Social Comparison Theory: We understand ourselves by comparing ourselves to others.
- Upward: comparing ourselves to someone better than us
- Downward: comparing ourselves to someone worse than us
Enlightenment Effect: Learning about a concept can change real-world behavior.
Halo Effect: When someone has one good trait, we assume they have many.
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: Believing in a concept can cause actions to make that concept a reality.

Attitudes

Components:
- Affective (how it makes you feel)
- Behavioral (what it makes you want to do)
- Cognitive (what you think about the concept)
Dimensions:
- Strength (strong attitudes are less likely to change)
- Accessibility (how easily the attitude comes to mind)
- Ambivalence (liking and disliking aspects of the concept)

Attitude Change Components

Source: Person trying to change the attitude
Receiver: Whose attitude is being changed
Message: What is said to create change
Channel: How the message is delivered

Attitude Change

Cognitive Dissonance: Discomfort from contradicting ideas, resolved by changing attitudes.
Self-Perception Theory: Attitudes change based on behaviors.

Impression Management Theory

Express different attitudes than what we portray.
Anticipated Regret: we think we will regret something, but in reality we wouldn't.

Cognition Errors

Theory of Bounded Rationality: Focusing on only a few aspects of a decision leads to irrational decisions.
Conjunction Fallacy: Two traits are more likely to occur together than individually.
Recognition Heuristic: Making decisions based on recognized objects over facts.
Hindsight Bias: Believing you predicted an outcome after it happened.
Affect Heuristic: Decisions based on emotional reactions rather than logic.
Alternative Outcomes Effect: Past random events affect future random events.
Anchoring Heuristic: Basing decisions on initial information.
Availability Heuristic: Relying on readily accessible information in a decision.
Confirmation Bias: Favoring information that confirms existing beliefs.
Overconfidence: Overestimating knowledge or abilities.
Ostrich Bias: Ignoring negative information.

Emotion and Motivation

Moods: play a role in the elaboration likelihood model of persuasion (central and peripheral routes)

Attributions

Stable vs. Unstable: Causes of behavior categorized as staying the same or changing.
Internal vs. External: Behavior causes due to characteristics of a person or outside forces.
Individualism vs. Collectivism: Cultures where individuals matter more vs. cultures valuing a groups' well-being.
Fundamental Attribution Error: Attributing behavior as internal, rather than external.
Defensive Attribution Error: Explaining success internally and failure externally.

Prejudice and Discrimination

Stereotypes: Overgeneralizing groups of people (shortcuts).
Subtyping: Creating exceptions to stereotypes.
Perceptual Confirmation: Interpreting information to support stereotypes.
Illusory Correlation: Overestimating the relationship between events.
Out-group Homogeneity: Believing out-group members are more similar.
Contact Hypothesis: Reducing prejudice via increased interaction with other groups.

Group Effects

Common Knowledge Effect: Discussing information from group members already.
Social Loafing: Individual effort decreasing in groups.
Group Polarization: Group opinions becoming more extreme.
Groupthink: Agreeing with others without questioning/considering opposing arguments.
Deindividuation: Group members lose individual identity.

Group Influence

Conformity: Going along with a group's behavior without being directly asked.
Compliance: Going along with a direct request.
Obedience: Following directions from authority figures.

Obedience

Closeness: Proximity to authority influences obedience.
Legitimate Authority: Trust in authority.
Prestige: Respect for authority's reputation.
Depersonalizing the Victim: Reducing empathy for harmed parties
Defiant Models: A non-obedient person prompts others' non-obedience.

Attraction

Sternberg’s Triangular Theory of Love: Combining intimacy, passion, and commmitment for various relationships.
Intimacy: Sharing emotions with someone you trust.
Passion: Hot physical attraction (lust in this case.)
Commitment: Being in a relationship long-term with someone.
Matching Hypothesis: Attraction between people with similar levels of attractiveness.
Facial Symmetry: People with symmetrical faces are often seen as more attractive.
Attitude Alignment: People in long-term couples tend to share more similar attitudes.
Proximity: Closeness as a key element in attraction.

Language

Rules: Structured rules and conventions are needed for clear language communication where small sets of words generate infinite communications.
Symbolic: Using symbols to represent intangible concepts.
Generative: Creating infinite messages from limited elements.
Structured: Organized manner with clear rules, and conventions.
Semantics: Definitions and meanings of words.
Denotation: Literal meaning of a word (dictionary definition.)
Connotation: Emotional meaning or implication.

Language Acquisition Theories

Sociocultural: Observational and interaction experiences influence language learning.

Behaviorist and Nativist Perspectives on Language

Behaviorism: Learning via reinforcement and conditioning.
Nativist (Chomsky): Innate language acquisition skill; Language acquisition; Biological device for language use.
Interactionism: Combination of innate and learned language skills.

Language Components

Phonemes: Smallest unit of sound in a language.
Morphemes: Smallest units of meaning in a language.
Receptive vocabulary: Words you understand.
Productive vocabulary: Words you use.
Telegraphic speech: Use of basic subjects and verbs

Language Errors

Overextension: Applying a word to a wider range of objects than appropriate.
Underextension: Applying a word to a narrower range of objects than appropriate.
Overregularization: Applying grammatical rules to irregular cases.

Cognition Barriers

Field Dependence vs. Independence: Relying on context in problem-solving.
Irrelevant information: Irrelevant bits that detract from important information.
Functional Fixedness: Thinking of objects only for their conventional use.
Unnecessary Constraints: Limitations one puts on a problem's solution.

Nonverbal Leakage

Attempting to disguise emotions can often lead to unintentional leakage.

Affective Forecasting

Predicting emotional reactions to future events.

Hedonic Treadmill

The tendency for people's happiness to return to a stable set point after positive or negative events.

Evolutionary Theory of Motivation

Inborn instincts drive behaviors.

Drive Reduction Theory

Motivation to relieve biological needs, such as thirst or hunger.

Incentive Theory

Motivation driven by external rewards.

Arousal Theory

Optimum level of arousal is necessary for motivation.

Yerkes-Dodson Law

Performance is best at a moderate level of arousal.

Hunger Motivation

Hypothalamus: Brain region critical in hunger regulation
Glucostatic theory: Glucose levels affect hunger
Learned Preferences: Food preferences influenced by our culture and upbringing.
Stress: Leads to elevated food consumption for coping mechanisms.

Contextual Hunger Cues

Palatability: How pleasing the food tastes.
Quantity: Amount, influencing intake.
Quality: Food quality impacts motivation.
Variety: More variety leads to more eating.
Sensory-Specific Satiety: Experiencing boredom with a food after repeatedly eating it.
Others: Social settings affecting food consumption.
Stress: Increases food intake for coping mechanisms.

Motivation in the Workplace

Extrinsic motivation: External rewards driving behavior
Intrinsic motivation: Internal satisfaction and enjoyment in work.
Undermining Effect: Rewards can decrease intrinsic motivation.
Intrinisic Factors:
- Challenge, Enjoyment, Mastery, Autonomy
Organizational Support: Encouragement from workplace in employee motivation.

Motivation to Achieve

Stability of achieving success, as a personality trait.
Likelihood/probability of achievement impacting motivation.
Incentive of success, impacts motivation.
Self-discipline in self-regulation.

Motivation to Belong

Evolutionary perspective: Humans' need for social groups as a survival strategy.
Emotional benefits: Increased happiness and stronger connections.
Health benefits: Increased well-being through supportive relationships.
Social media: Potential conflict between social connection and comparison.

Emotional Components

Cognitive: Thoughts related to emotions, influenced by culture.
Physiological: Physical responses to emotions.
Behavioral: Emotional expression and coping mechanisms, influenced by culture.

Emotional Theories

Discrete emotions theory: Distinct basic emotions.
James-Lange theory: Physiological response precedes the emotional experience.
Cannon-Bard theory: Physiological and emotional responses happen simultaneously.
Schachter-Singer theory: Physiological response + cognitive appraisal = emotion.
Continuous theory: Emotional experiences exist on a spectrum.

The Brain and Emotion

Amygdala: Critical in processing fear and anger.
Prefrontal Cortex: Involved in managing emotions and controlling behaviors.
Insula: Involved in interoception and self-awareness of emotions.

Emotion Regulation

Reappraisal: Re-evaluating a situation to change emotional responses.
Expressive Suppression: Consciously suppressing emotional expressions.

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Description

This quiz delves into critical psychological concepts related to attitudes and their effects, including social comparison, the halo effect, and self-fulfilling prophecies. Test your understanding of how attitudes are formed and changed, as well as the implications of these psychological principles in real-life scenarios.