Perceptual Biases in Personality Psychology
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Perceptual Biases in Personality Psychology

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Questions and Answers

Which of the following personality traits is associated with high job performance according to meta-analyses?

  • Openness to Experience
  • Extraversion
  • Conscientiousness (correct)
  • Neuroticism
  • What behavior is defined as helping subordinates achieve goal attainment?

  • Work Facilitation (correct)
  • Personal Adjustment
  • Performance
  • Conformance
  • How does person-job fit impact job performance?

  • Leads to higher job performance (correct)
  • Increases job dissatisfaction
  • Has no significant effect
  • Decreases requirement for skills
  • Which personality type is classified as a 'doer' according to Holland's Occupational Types?

    <p>Realistic</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the 'Agreeableness' trait in the Big Five model refer to?

    <p>Warmth and kindness towards others</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following pairs cognitive styles in the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator?

    <p>Thinking (T) - Feeling (F)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What component is NOT related to dependability?

    <p>Emotional health and well-being</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which personality type in Holland's categories primarily involves helping others?

    <p>Social</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does Fundamental Attribution Error describe?

    <p>Attributing another person's behavior solely to personal characteristics</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which bias reflects the tendency to perceive someone more positively based on similarity?

    <p>Similar to Me Effect</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does Self-Serving Bias typically manifest in behavior attribution?

    <p>Attributing successes to oneself and failures to external factors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main concept of Selective Perception?

    <p>Limiting perception based on unique experiences</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In what way does the Contrast Effect influence perception?

    <p>By contrasting current perceptions with previous influences</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the Halo/Horn Effect involve?

    <p>Making subjective evaluations based on overall positive or negative impressions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which term refers to the tendency for someone to behave in a way that aligns with others' perceptions of them?

    <p>Self-Fulfilling Prophecy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the context of supervisor-subordinate relationships, what does Support involve?

    <p>Creating an environment that boosts a subordinate's self-worth</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes terminal values?

    <p>Convictions about what one would like to achieve in life.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do Hofstede's dimensions of national values categorize power distance?

    <p>High power distance indicates high acceptance of inequality.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'instrumental values' refer to?

    <p>Beliefs about how one should act in life.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do citizens in a low uncertainty avoidance culture typically exhibit?

    <p>Comfort with ambiguity and uncertainty.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the three main components of motivation as defined in the content?

    <p>Direction, intensity, and persistence</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which theory asserts that people are motivated by the prospect of achieving goals?

    <p>Goal setting theory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the context of Hofstede's dimensions, what does 'collectivism' imply?

    <p>Prioritization of group interests over individual interests.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Positive affectivity refers to:

    <p>The likelihood of feeling pleasant emotions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement correctly describes affect?

    <p>Affect encompasses feelings, emotions, and moods.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT one of the five needs in the Hierarchy of Needs Theory?

    <p>Autonomy needs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What would a society with high masculinity values generally support?

    <p>More traditional male-female roles.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of operant conditioning is associated with increasing a behavior through a positive stimulus?

    <p>Positive reinforcement</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Short-term orientation in a culture indicates

    <p>A preference for immediate results and short-term gains.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is emotional contagion?

    <p>The ability to feel the same emotion as another person.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the difference between surface acting and deep acting?

    <p>Surface acting involves changing display emotions, while deep acting alters felt emotions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is meant by a display rule?

    <p>The required emotional display in a job.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Excessive emotional labor is likely to result in what consequence?

    <p>Emotional burnout.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does emotional intelligence involve?

    <p>Perceiving, understanding, and regulating one's emotions and those of others.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the Job Characteristics Model, which component relates to feeling personally accountable for work outcomes?

    <p>Experienced responsibility</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the affective events theory primarily concerned with?

    <p>The experience of daily uplifts at work impacting emotions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes 'felt emotion'?

    <p>The emotion one actually feels internally.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the Self-Serving Bias primarily involve when analyzing one's behavior?

    <p>Attributing success to oneself while blaming external factors for failure.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the First Impression Error affect later assessments of a person?

    <p>Initial judgments can skew future evaluations, positively or negatively.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What impact does the Halo/Horn Effect have on perceptions of individuals?

    <p>Positive traits overshadow negative traits or vice versa.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The Similar to Me Effect is primarily influenced by what factor?

    <p>Shared experiences or background between individuals.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the Job Characteristics Model, what does 'experienced meaningfulness of the work' indicate?

    <p>The perceived value and worth of the job to the individual</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic outcome of Fundamental Attribution Error in judging others' behaviors?

    <p>Focusing on internal characteristics over external influences.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In what way does Selective Perception limit an individual's understanding?

    <p>It creates bias by filtering information based on personal experiences and background.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which bias results from the tendency to judge others based on the behavior of people previously encountered?

    <p>Contrast Effect</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which aspect of motivation refers to the duration of effort a person exerts toward achieving a goal?

    <p>Persistence</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which Perceptual Bias involves interpreting a person’s behavior in line with one's perceptions, potentially leading to a self-fulfilling outcome?

    <p>Self-Fulfilling Prophecy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which category in Holland's Occupational Types does 'persuader' belong to?

    <p>Enterprising</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary concept behind Goal Setting Theory regarding achievement?

    <p>Setting specific goals helps gain clarity on work efforts.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following components does NOT belong to the Four Types of Operant Conditioning?

    <p>Consistent feedback</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which characteristic is NOT a component of personality definition?

    <p>Physical appearance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the implications of higher conscientiousness in the workplace?

    <p>Higher job performance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which theory emphasizes that people are motivated by their inputs and expected outcomes?

    <p>Equity Theory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which personality trait is associated with emotional stability?

    <p>Neuroticism</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which component does NOT play a role in defining dependability in subordinates?

    <p>Emotional well-being</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main benefit of a high person-job fit?

    <p>Greater job performance and citizenship behavior</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In Rokeach's theory, what do terminal values specifically represent?

    <p>End-states of existence</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the context of the Big Five, what does 'openness to experience' generally involve?

    <p>Interest in new ideas and experiences</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement correctly describes the relationship between values and emotional responses?

    <p>Compromised values can lead to emotional distress.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a characteristic of the 'conventional' personality type?

    <p>Organizing and managing tasks</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'instrumental values' refer to in the context of Rokeach's theory?

    <p>Means of achieving desired ends</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does 'general satisfactoriness' assess in a subordinate?

    <p>Overall global measure of performance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which Myers-Briggs dichotomy focuses on decision-making preferences?

    <p>Thinking vs. Feeling</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In Hofstede's dimensions, a culture characterized by high collectivism would likely emphasize which of the following?

    <p>Community well-being and group harmony</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes the affective state known as affect?

    <p>Feelings that combine emotions and moods</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does a 'display rule' refer to in a professional setting?

    <p>The required emotions a person must show in a job.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement best defines positive affectivity?

    <p>The degree to which a person experiences pleasant emotions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT one of the six dimensions categorized by Hofstede's theory?

    <p>Emotion Regulation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which dimension in Hofstede's theory refers to the extent citizens accept unequal distributions of power?

    <p>Power Distance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the implication of a high score in the femininity-masculinity dimension in Hofstede's theory?

    <p>Acceptance of traditional male-female roles</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between surface acting and deep acting?

    <p>Surface acting modifies displayed emotions, whereas deep acting alters the felt emotions to align with expectations.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which factor is NOT a component of emotional intelligence?

    <p>Emotional Contagion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does excessive emotional labor primarily affect individuals in the workplace?

    <p>It results in burnout and extreme stress.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is emotional contagion most related to?

    <p>The experience of emotions at work through indirect exposure.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What distinguishes emotions from moods in the context of affect?

    <p>Emotions are specific and often short-lived responses</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Within Hofstede's dimensions, the degree to which a society engages in long-term planning versus short-term results is categorized as which dimension?

    <p>Long-Term Orientation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What effect does deep acting have on felt emotions?

    <p>It can change one's actual emotional state.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The concept of 'daily uplifts' is associated with which theory?

    <p>Affective Events Theory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which aspect of emotional intelligence involves managing one's own emotions?

    <p>Regulation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does emotional labor require from employees?

    <p>Hiding genuine emotions in favor of job requirements.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What perception bias leads individuals to attribute their failures to external factors instead of self-factors?

    <p>Self-Serving Bias</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which bias involves a person's initial perception of someone affecting their subsequent judgments about that person?

    <p>First Impression Error</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the Contrast Effect influence an individual's perception during evaluations?

    <p>By making candidates appear more qualified than they are</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes the Similar to Me Effect?

    <p>Evaluating others more favorably based on perceived similarities</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary outcome of the Self-Fulfilling Prophecy bias in a workplace setting?

    <p>Behavior that aligns with others' perceptions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between surface acting and deep acting in emotional labor?

    <p>Surface acting requires effort to mask felt emotions, while deep acting involves genuinely altering those emotions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes emotional intelligence?

    <p>The capacity to understand and manage both one's own emotions and the emotions of others.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In Affective Events Theory, what is meant by 'daily uplifts'?

    <p>Minor positive occurrences that enhance mood and emotional state.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What defines a display rule in the context of emotional labor?

    <p>The organizational guidelines regarding acceptable emotional expressions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of excessive emotional labor?

    <p>Burnout, which is a severe form of stress.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How is the concept of personality defined?

    <p>Characteristic patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a direct effect of higher conscientiousness in the workplace?

    <p>Higher job performance among employees.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which category in Holland's Occupational Types is a thinker associated with?

    <p>Investigative</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the implication of person-job fit on workplace behavior?

    <p>Better fit enhances job performance and reduces withdrawal behavior.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the Big Five personality trait of neuroticism indicate?

    <p>Tendency toward emotional instability and anxiety.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a key characteristic of the agreeableness trait in the Big Five model?

    <p>Tendency to be compassionate and cooperative.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which Myers-Briggs dichotomy describes preference for structured planning versus flexibility?

    <p>Judging versus Perceiving</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is an example of a terminal value?

    <p>Having a comfortable life</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In Hofstede's dimensions, high power distance reflects which of the following?

    <p>Acceptance of inequalities in power distribution</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which dimension of Hofstede's theory deals with the extent to which individuals prioritize short-term versus long-term goals?

    <p>Short-Term-Orientation Long-Term-Orientation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do instrumental values primarily reflect?

    <p>How individuals should behave</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following describes a characteristic of a high-indulgence culture?

    <p>Encouragement to enjoy life and have fun</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What aspect of affect is primarily concerned with feelings that are more enduring and less intense than emotions?

    <p>Moods</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which term describes the acceptance of traditional gender roles within a high masculinity culture?

    <p>Strong gender delineation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In Rokeach's theory, what do terminal values represent?

    <p>End-states of existence</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which category of values reflects how individuals believe they must behave to achieve their desired end-states?

    <p>Instrumental values</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic feature of low uncertainty avoidance cultures?

    <p>Comfort with ambiguity and change</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Personality Traits and Job Performance

    • Conscientiousness is a personality trait associated with high job performance.

    Helping Behavior

    • Supportive behavior is defined as actions taken to aid subordinates in achieving their goals.

    Person-Job Fit and Performance

    • Person-job fit refers to the compatibility between an individual's traits and the demands of a job.
    • A strong person-job fit generally leads to higher job performance, job satisfaction, and reduced turnover.

    Holland's Occupational Types

    • Realistic personality type is characterized as a 'doer' in Holland's Occupational Types.

    Big Five Model

    • The Big Five model of personality includes Agreeableness, which refers to traits like cooperation, trust, and empathy.

    Myers-Briggs Type Indicator

    • Thinking vs. Feeling is a cognitive style pairing in the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator.

    Dependability

    • Emotional stability is not a component of dependability.

    Holland's Occupational Types - Social Personality Type

    • The Social personality type, according to Holland's categories, primarily focuses on helping others.

    Fundamental Attribution Error

    • Fundamental Attribution Error describes the tendency to overestimate the influence of internal factors and underestimate external factors when explaining someone's behavior.

    Perceptual Bias

    • Similarity Effect reflects the tendency to view someone more favorably based on shared characteristics.
    • Self-Serving Bias often manifests in blaming external factors for failures while attributing success to internal factors.
    • Selective Perception involves focusing on information that aligns with pre-existing beliefs and disregarding contradictory evidence.
    • Contrast Effect influences perception by comparing a person to others recently encountered, leading to a distorted judgment.
    • Halo/Horn Effect occurs when a single positive or negative trait influences the perception of other traits, leading to a biased evaluation.
    • Self-Fulfilling Prophecy occurs when someone behaves in a way that aligns with others' expectations of them.

    Supervisor-Subordinate Relationship

    • Support in a supervisor-subordinate relationship refers to the provision of assistance, resources, and encouragement by the supervisor.

    Values

    • Terminal values represent desired end states, such as happiness, security, and freedom.
    • Hofstede's power distance dimension categorizes societies based on how equally power is distributed among citizens.
    • Instrumental values represent desired behaviors or modes of conduct, such as honesty, responsibility, and ambition.
    • Individuals in low uncertainty avoidance cultures are generally more adaptable to change and ambiguity.

    Motivation

    • Motivation has three main components: direction (choosing what to pursue), intensity (effort applied), and persistence (continued effort).
    • Goal Setting Theory states that people are motivated by the prospect of attaining specific, challenging goals.
    • Collectivism in Hofstede's dimensions implies that people prioritize the needs of the group over individual needs.

    Affect

    • Positive affectivity refers to a tendency to experience positive emotions and engage in optimistic thinking.
    • Affect encompasses a broad range of feelings, including emotions, moods, and attitudes.

    Cultural Values

    • Societies with high masculinity values generally place a high emphasis on achievement, assertiveness, and competition.

    Hierarchy of Needs Theory

    • Safety needs are not part of the five needs in the Hierarchy of Needs Theory.

    Operant Conditioning

    • Positive reinforcement is the type of operant conditioning associated with increasing a behavior through positive stimuli.

    Short-Term Orientation

    • Short-term orientation in a culture indicates a focus on immediate gratification and traditions over long-term planning and future-oriented goals.

    Emotional Contagion

    • Emotional contagion refers to the spread of emotions from one person to another.

    Emotional Labor

    • Surface acting involves pretending to feel a certain emotion, while deep acting involves attempting to actually feel the desired emotion.
    • Display rules are informal guidelines within a culture that determine appropriate emotional expression in various situations.
    • Excessive emotional labor may lead to burnout, emotional exhaustion, and stress.

    Emotional Intelligence

    • Emotional intelligence involves understanding, managing, and utilizing emotions effectively.

    Job Characteristics Model

    • Autonomy in the Job Characteristics Model refers to feeling personally accountable for work outcomes.

    Affective Events Theory

    • Affective Events Theory primarily focuses on how workplace events trigger emotional reactions that affect job satisfaction, behavior, and performance.

    Felt Emotion

    • Felt emotion refers to the actual experience of an emotion, as opposed to a displayed emotion.

    ### Perceptual Bias

    • Self-Serving Bias primarily involves attributing success to internal factors and failures to external factors when analyzing one's behavior.
    • First Impression Error influences later assessments of a person based on the initial impression, leading to a distorted evaluation.
    • Halo/Horn Effect influences perceptions of individuals based on a single feature, leading to a biased assessment of other aspects.

    Job Characteristics Model - Experienced Meaningfulness

    • Experienced meaningfulness of the work refers to the feeling that the work is valuable and contributes to something larger than oneself.

    ### Similar to Me Effect

    • Similar to Me Effect is primarily influenced by the degree of perceived similarity between individuals.

    Perceptual Bias - Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

    • Self-Fulfilling Prophecy is a type of perceptual bias where a person's behavior is influenced by expectations, leading to a self-fulfilling outcome.

    ### Holland's Occupational Types - Persuader

    • Enterprising is the category in Holland's Occupational Types where 'persuader' belongs.

    Goal Setting Theory

    • Goal Setting Theory emphasizes the importance of specific, challenging, and attainable goals in motivating individuals towards achievement.

    Operant Conditioning

    • Punishment is a component of the Four Types of Operant Conditioning.

    Personality

    • Cognitive ability is not a component of personality definition.

    Conscientiousness

    • Higher conscientiousness in the workplace often leads to increased productivity, organizational commitment, and lower absentee rates.

    ### Equity Theory

    • Equity Theory emphasizes that individuals are motivated by comparing their inputs and outcomes to those of others.

    ### Neuroticism

    • Neuroticism is the personality trait associated with emotional stability.

    ### Dependability

    • Intelligence is NOT a crucial factor in defining dependability in subordinates.

    ### Person-Job Fit

    • The most significant benefit of a high person-job fit is increased job satisfaction.

    Rokeach's Theory

    • Terminal values in Rokeach’s theory represent ultimate goals, such as happiness, security, and freedom.

    Big Five Model - Openness to Experience

    • Openness to Experience within the Big Five model generally involves being curious, imaginative, and willing to embrace new experiences.

    Conventional Personality Type - Holland's Occupational Types

    • Conventional personality types in Holland's Occupational Types are often characterized by a preference for structure, order, and routine.

    Values and Emotional Responses

    • Values influence the emotional responses individuals experience, and emotional responses can also influence how values are prioritized.

    Rokeach's Theory - Instrumental Values

    • Instrumental values in Rokeach's theory represent desired means of achieving terminal values, such as honesty, responsibility, and ambition.

    General Satisfactory

    • General satisfactoriness assesses a subordinate based on overall performance, attitude, and contributions to the team.

    Hofstede's Dimensions

    • A culture characterized by high collectivism would likely emphasize group harmony and cooperation.

    Myers-Briggs Dichotomy - Decision Making

    • Thinking vs. Feeling is the Myers-Briggs dichotomy that focuses on decision-making preferences.

    Affect

    • Affect represents a broad range of feelings, including moods, emotions, and attitudes.

    Display Rules In A Professional Setting

    • Display rules in a professional setting are informal guidelines for how to express emotions in various work contexts.

    Positive Affectivity

    • Positive affectivity is characterized by a tendency to experience positive emotions and engage in optimistic thinking.

    Hofstede's Six Dimensions

    • Gender egalitarianism is NOT one of the six dimensions categorized by Hofstede's theory.

    Power Distance

    • Power distance in Hofstede's theory refers to the extent to which citizens accept unequal distributions of power.

    Femininity-Masculinity Dimension

    • A high score in the femininity-masculinity dimension in Hofstede's theory implies a greater emphasis on nurturing and cooperation.

    Surface vs. Deep Acting

    • The primary difference between surface acting and deep acting lies in the level of authenticity. Surface acting involves pretending to feel a certain emotion, while deep acting involves genuine effort to experience the desired emotion.

    Emotional Intelligence Components

    • Creativity is NOT a component of emotional intelligence.

    Excessive Emotional Labor

    • Excessive emotional labor primarily affects individuals in the workplace by leading to burnout and emotional exhaustion.

    Emotional Contagion

    • Emotional contagion is most related to the spread of emotions from one person to another.

    Emotions vs. Moods

    • Emotions are typically characterized by a more intense, short-lived experience, while moods are more subtle and enduring in nature.

    Hofstede's Dimensions - Long-Term vs. Short-Term Orientation

    • Long-term vs. short-term orientation in Hofstede's dimensions measures a society's focus on long-term planning and future-oriented goals versus immediate gratification and tradition.

    Deep Acting

    • Deep acting has the potential to affect felt emotions by influencing the actual experience of the desired emotion.

    Daily Uplifts

    • Daily uplifts are associated with Affective Events Theory.

    Emotional Intelligence - Managing Own Emotions

    • Self-management is the aspect of emotional intelligence that involves managing one's own emotions.

    Emotional Labor

    • Emotional labor involves managing and modifying emotions to meet the demands of the workplace.

    Perceptual Bias

    • Inaccuracy in our perception.
    • Fundamental Attribution Error: When we judge someone's behavior, we tend to attribute it to their personality rather than external factors.
    • Self-Serving Bias: We tend to attribute our successes to internal factors (our abilities) and failures to external factors (bad luck).
    • Selective Perception: Our past experiences and knowledge affect how we perceive things. The same situation can be perceived differently by different people.
    • Similar To Me Effect: We tend to be more positive towards people who are similar to us.
    • First Impression Error: Our first impression of someone can strongly influence our later perceptions of them.
    • Halo/Horn Effect: Our overall impression of a person can influence our perceptions of their individual qualities (good traits lead to a halo effect, bad traits lead to a horn effect).
    • Contrast Effect: Our perception of someone is affected by the people we've encountered before them.
    • Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: Our expectations about someone can influence their behavior in line with those expectations.

    Personality

    • Refers to a person's characteristic thought patterns, feelings, and behaviors.
    • Each person's personality is unique and remains consistent across situations and time.

    Taxonomies of Personality

    • Big Five:
      • Neuroticism: Refers to emotional stability. Low neuroticism means greater emotional stability.
      • Extraversion: The degree to which a person is outgoing and sociable.
      • Openness to Experience: The degree to which a person embraces novelty and new experiences.
      • Agreeableness: A person's willingness to cooperate and get along with others.
      • Conscientiousness: An individual's sense of responsibility, organization, and persistence. Higher conscientiousness is linked to better job performance.
    • Person-Job Fit: The match between an individual's personality and the demands of their job. Greater fit leads to better job performance, increased organizational citizenship behavior, and less withdrawal behavior.
    • Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI): Categorizes individuals based on four dimensions:
      • Extroversion (E) vs. Introversion (I): Outgoing vs. More reserved.
      • Sensing (S) vs. Intuition (N): Focus on concrete details vs. abstract concepts.
      • Thinking (T) vs. Feeling (F): Relying on logic vs. emotions for decision-making.
      • Judging (J) vs. Perceiving (P): Preferring structure and planning vs. spontaneity and flexibility.
    • Holland's Occupational Types: Identifies six occupational types based on personality characteristics:
      • Realistic (R): Doers (prefer hands-on work)
      • Investigative (I): Thinkers (enjoy intellectual pursuits)
      • Artistic (A): Creators (value self-expression)
      • Social (S): Helpers (enjoy working with people)
      • Enterprising (E): Persuaders (seek influence and leadership)
      • Conventional (C): Organizers (prefer structure and routine)
      • These types are ordered based on similarity. Adjacent types are more similar than those further apart.

    Values and Affect

    • Values:
      • Strong beliefs that shape our actions and attitudes.
      • Transcend specific situations.
      • Often have an emotional component.
    • Rokeach's Theory: Distinguishes between instrumental and terminal values.
      • Terminal Values: Desired end states of existence (e.g., a comfortable life, happiness).
      • Instrumental Values: Desirable modes of behavior (e.g., ambitious, honest).
    • Hofstede's Theory:
      • Identifies six dimensions of national cultures.
      • Each dimension has a range from 0 (low) to 100 (high).
      • Power Distance: Acceptance or rejection of inequality between people.
      • Collectivism-Individualism: Focus on individual or group interests.
      • Femininity-Masculinity: Acceptance of traditional gender roles.
      • Uncertainty Avoidance: Tolerance for ambiguity and risk.
      • Short-Term vs. Long-Term Orientation: Emphasis on immediate needs and goals versus a future focus.
      • Indulgence vs. Restraint: A society's willingness versus unwillingness to hold back enjoyment of life.
    • Affect: Refers to feelings, which encompass both emotions and moods.
      • Moods: General positive or negative feelings (e.g., pleasant or unpleasant).
      • Emotions: More specific feelings (e.g., anger, joy, sadness).
      • Emotions are often organized in a circumplex model (emotions arranged on a circle based on valence and activation).
    • Emotional Contagion: When a person's emotions influence the emotions of others (e.g., feeling happy because someone else is happy).
    • Emotional Labor: The effort required to show emotions that we aren't genuinely feeling in a work setting.
      • Felt Emotion: The emotion you truly feel.
      • Displayed Emotion: The emotion you express.
      • Display Rule: What emotions are expected of you in your role.
      • Excessive emotional labor can lead to burnout.
      • Surface Acting: Faking an emotion.
      • Deep Acting: Changing your internal feelings to match the required display rule.
    • Emotional Intelligence: The ability to perceive, understand, and manage your own and others' emotions.
      • Perception: Awareness of your own and others' emotions.
      • Understanding: Knowing the causes of your own and others' emotions.
      • Regulation: Managing your own and others' emotions.

    Motivation (Part 1)

    • Motivation: The direction, intensity, and persistence of effort towards a goal.
      • Goal: The desired outcome.
      • Effort: The energy you exert.
      • Direction: Where you direct your effort.
      • Intensity: How hard you work.
      • Persistence: How long you work.
    • Major Theories of Motivation:
      • Hierarchy of Needs Theory: Individuals have five needs: physiological, safety, social, esteem, and self-actualization. Needs must be met in a hierarchical order.
      • Three Needs Theory: Individuals are motivated by three needs: achievement, power, and affiliation.
      • Operant Conditioning Theory: Uses reinforcement to shape behavior. Four types of operant conditioning: positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, punishment, and extinction.
      • Goal Setting Theory: People are motivated by goals and the prospect of achieving them.

    Motivation (Part 2)

    • Equity Theory: Individuals are motivated by perceived fairness. If they feel their inputs and outcomes are not equitable with others, they will be demotivated.
    • Job Characteristics Model: Describes five core job characteristics that contribute to motivation:
      • Experienced meaningfulness of the work: The job feels important and worthwhile.
      • Experienced responsibility for outcomes at work: Employees feel accountable for results.
      • Knowledge of the actual results of the work activities: Individuals know how they are performing.

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    Explore the key concepts of perceptual biases and their influence on personality assessments. This quiz covers fundamental attribution error, self-serving bias, and the impact of initial perceptions on our judgment of others. Dive into how various biases shape our understanding of personality traits.

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