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Questions and Answers

Which of the following best describes the definition of learning in psychology?

The process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviour, resulting from experience or practice. (correct)

The process of acquiring skills exclusively through observation.

The unchanging state of knowledge throughout an individual's life.

The performance of automatic responses without conscious thought.

What is the primary focus of behaviorism in learning?

The role of emotions in shaping behaviour.

Innate biological influences on behaviour.

Mental processes and their role in learning.

Observable acts and events excluding cognitive thoughts. (correct)

In classical conditioning, which stimulus initially does not trigger a response?

Unconditioned Stimulus

Unconditioned Response

Neutral Stimulus (correct)

Conditioned Stimulus

What type of conditioning involves linking a response to consequences?

Operant conditioning Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a principle needed for classical conditioning to occur?

The conditioned response must occur immediately after the unconditioned stimulus. Signup and view all the answers

What is the outcome of pairing a neutral stimulus repeatedly with an unconditioned stimulus?

The neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus. Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of the unconditioned stimulus in classical conditioning?

To produce a response without prior learning. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following represents an application of operant conditioning?

Children receiving praise for completing their homework. Signup and view all the answers

Which scenario best exemplifies the concept of cognitive learning?

A student developing a strategy for solving math problems. Signup and view all the answers

What is necessary for classical conditioning to effectively occur?

The CS must be presented before the US and paired multiple times. Signup and view all the answers

In classical conditioning, what does generalization refer to?

The tendency to respond to similar stimuli as the CS. Signup and view all the answers

What occurs during the process of extinction in classical conditioning?

The conditioned response gradually diminishes after repeated presentations of the CS alone. Signup and view all the answers

What best describes the phenomenon of spontaneous recovery?

The return of a conditioned response after a break. Signup and view all the answers

In higher-order conditioning, what happens to the new neutral stimulus?

It becomes a conditioned stimulus but is weaker than the original CS. Signup and view all the answers

What does the Cognitive Perspective in classical conditioning emphasize?

The development of predictive memory regarding the unconditioned stimulus. Signup and view all the answers

Which application of classical conditioning is associated with the survival instinct?

Acquired tastes from minimal pairings with illness. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary focus of Operant Conditioning?

The influence of consequences on behavior. Signup and view all the answers

What role did Watson attribute to Pavlovian theory in the 1920s?

It had significant impacts on preferences, emotions, and tastes. Signup and view all the answers

In the context of the Skinner Box, what does an operant response represent?

A behavior influenced by the outcomes it produces. Signup and view all the answers

How does the concept of biological preparedness relate to classical conditioning?

It underpins why some fears are more easily acquired than others. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of the Skinner Box in psychological research?

To observe operant conditioning through reinforcement and punishment. Signup and view all the answers

What aspect of learning does the behavioural perspective of classical conditioning primarily focus on?

The substitution of conditioned stimuli for unconditioned stimuli. Signup and view all the answers

What is NOT one of the conditions identified by social psychologists that can decrease prejudice between groups?

One side must have higher economic power Signup and view all the answers

Which statement about aggression is True?

Aggression can be expressed through verbal or physical behaviors. Signup and view all the answers

In Sternburg's triangle of love, which component is NOT considered a part of consummate love?

Attraction Signup and view all the answers

What does the term diffusion of responsibility refer to in the context of altruism?

Individuals feeling less responsibility due to others present. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a contributing factor to increased aggression according to social learning theory?

Genetic predisposition to aggression Signup and view all the answers

Which term best describes actions taken to harm someone with intention, whether physically or emotionally?

Aggression Signup and view all the answers

Which characteristic is NOT typically associated with attraction?

Oppositional identity Signup and view all the answers

Altruism is best defined as behavior that:

Is socially desirable and benefits others without expectation of reward. Signup and view all the answers

What does not contribute to the formation of a person's identity within a social group according to social identity theory?

Attachment Signup and view all the answers

Which aspect is a common psychological trigger for aggressive behavior linked to biology?

Testosterone levels Signup and view all the answers

Which factor is NOT associated with increased conformity?

Having made a prior commitment to a response Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary reason for groupthink as described in the content?

Prioritizing group unity over critical evaluation Signup and view all the answers

Social loafing refers to which of the following behaviors?

Contributing less effort in a group than when alone Signup and view all the answers

Which scenario illustrates the concept of social facilitation?

An athlete running faster in a race due to the presence of spectators Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes the foot-in-the-door technique in compliance?

Making an initial small request to increase chances for a larger request Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes deindividuation?

Loss of awareness of one's own individuality in a crowd Signup and view all the answers

In group polarization, how are group discussions likely to affect member decisions?

Members tend to make more extreme decisions relative to individual judgments Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is an example of normative influence?

Changing behavior to fit in with a group Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Learning

Learning involves gaining new knowledge and skills, which results in enduring behaviour change acquired through experience or practice.
Learning is a biological process that results in changes in the brain.

Learning Theories

Behaviourism posits that learning stems from observable acts and events, excluding mental processes.
Social Cognition asserts learning includes shifts in behaviour, thoughts, expectations and knowledge, and these elements influence behaviour in a cyclical manner.

Classical Conditioning

Classical Conditioning is a learning process wherein a previously neutral stimulus is linked with a stimulus that naturally provokes a specific response. After repeated pairings, the neutral stimulus acquires the ability to induce a similar or related response.
It is a form of associative learning, where two events happening close together are associated.
Developed by Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist, while studying digestion in dogs. He discovered that dogs could be conditioned to salivate in response to a neutral stimulus (e.g., bell) that was previously paired with food (unconditioned stimulus).

Classical Conditioning Elements

Unconditioned Stimulus (US): A stimulus that naturally triggers a response without prior learning.
Unconditioned Response (UR): The naturally occurring response to an unconditioned stimulus.
Conditioned Stimulus (CS): A previously neutral stimulus that, after repeated pairings with the unconditioned stimulus, elicits a conditioned response.
Conditioned Response (CR): The learned response to a conditioned stimulus.

Pavlov's Experiments

Pavlov conducted various experiments using dogs to study the principles of classical conditioning. He paired different neutral stimuli with food (e.g., ticking metronome, ringing bell, buzzer, light, touch) and observed the dogs' salivation responses.

Classical Conditioning Principles

For classical conditioning to occur, the conditioned stimulus must be presented before the unconditioned stimulus.
The CS and US must be presented close together in time (less than 5 seconds).
Repeated pairings of the CS and US are vital.
The CS should be distinct from other competing stimuli.

Classical Conditioning Features

Generalisation: Responding to stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus with a similar response.
Discrimination: Learning to distinguish between the conditioned stimulus and other irrelevant stimuli and respond differently.
Extinction: The gradual reduction of the conditioned response when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus.
Spontaneous Recovery: The reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response after a period of rest.
Higher-Order Conditioning: Pairing the conditioned stimulus with a new neutral stimulus, creating another, weaker conditioned stimulus.

Explanations for Classical Conditioning

Behavioural Perspective: The conditioned stimulus substitutes for the unconditioned stimulus by activating the same brain region.
Cognitive Perspective: The conditioned stimulus provides information or an expectancy about the upcoming unconditioned stimulus.

Pavlov’s Legacy

Classical conditioning is a fundamental biological process for adaptation that enables organisms to prepare for important events.
Scientifically proven through laboratory research, it has practical applications in various real-world situations.

Classical Conditioning Applications

Learning to Like: Positive emotions (conditioned response) associated with objects/events (conditioned stimulus) due to their pairing with enjoyable experiences (unconditioned stimulus).
Learning to Fear: Pairing a neutral stimulus (conditioned stimulus) with a stimulus that triggers pain, surprise, or embarrassment (unconditioned stimulus).
Acquired Tastes: Liking or disliking particular foods and smells, often resulting from a single or limited number of pairings due to survival instincts.
Reacting to Medical Treatments: Developing unpleasant reactions to stimuli associated with medical treatments, and experiencing reduced pain or anxiety in response to placebos.

Operant Conditioning

Operant Conditioning is a type of learning where a response becomes more or less frequent, dependent on its consequences. Behavior is controlled by the consequences that follow.
Founded by B.F. Skinner, an American psychologist, who introduced Radical Behaviourism, emphasizing the environment's role in shaping behavior. He also founded Experimental Analysis of Behaviour and designed the Skinner Box, an experimental apparatus used to study operant conditioning in animals.

Skinner Box

The Skinner Box is an enclosure designed to study animal behavior, where an animal learns to perform certain behaviors (e.g., pressing a lever) to obtain rewards (e.g., food pellets) or avoid punishments (e.g., electric shock).

Consequences of Behaviour

Conformity: Increasing conformity when individuals feel incompetent or insecure, are in larger groups, admire the status and attractiveness of the group, have made a prior commitment, know others are observing them, are from a culture that values social standards, or when tasks are difficult.
Normative Influence: Conforming to be approved and accepted by others
Informational Influence: Conforming due to a need for information, using the behaviour of others to guide actions in ambiguous situations.

Groupthink

A form of conformity where maintaining group unity is prioritized over critically evaluating facts and making sound decisions. This can lead to flawed decisions due to:
- Illusion of invulnerability: The belief that the group can do no wrong.
- Self-censorship: Skeptics avoid expressing concerns.
- Pressure on skeptics to conform: Group members and leaders pressure skeptics to conform.
- Illusion of unanimity: A false perception of consensus due to suppression of opposing views.

Group Behaviour

Group Polarization: In a group of like-minded individuals, discussions tend to strengthen existing opinions, potentially leading to more extreme decisions than individual decisions.
Social Facilitation: The positive influence of others on performance when a task is perceived as easy.
Social Impairment: The negative influence of others on performance when a task is perceived as difficult.
Social Loafing: People tend to exert less effort when working in a group than individually.
Deindividuation: A loss of personal identity and sense of responsibility when in large groups or crowds, leading to increased destructiveness or helpfulness depending on social norms.

Compliance

Compliance involves changing one's behavior in response to a request from another person or group, often with no real authority or power.
It is a major topic in consumer psychology, which seeks to understand consumer behavior and influence purchasing decisions.

Compliance Techniques

Foot-in-the-Door Technique: Starting with a small request that is readily accepted, followed by a larger request that is more likely to be granted due to the initial commitment.

Aggression: Any behavior, verbal or physical, intended to harm another person physically or emotionally. A complex interaction of biology and experience.
Biology and Aggression:
- Fighting instinct for survival (evolutionary perspective).
- Genetic predisposition for aggression.
- Variations in brain function (e.g., amygdala activation) and chemical influences (e.g., testosterone, alcohol).
Experience and Aggression:
- Social Learning Theory: Aggressive behaviour learned through observation of others.
- Adopting social roles that promote aggression.
- Early experiences with abuse, although not necessarily leading to abusive behavior later.
- Exposure to violent media (TV, movies, video games).

Attraction

Attraction is a feeling of liking or desiring a relationship with another person.
Factors influencing attraction include:
- Physical appearance
- Proximity (physical closeness)
- Similarity (individuals often drawn to those who share similar characteristics).
- Reciprocity (liking someone who likes you).

Love

Love is a strong affection for another person based on personal ties, sexual attraction, admiration, or shared interests.
Robert Sternberg's Triangular Theory of Love defines love as a combination of three components:
- Intimacy: Emotional closeness, feelings of attachment, and shared experiences.
- Passion: Physical attraction, desire, and arousal.
- Commitment: Decision to love and maintain a relationship.
Types of Love:
- Romantic Love: Intimacy and passion.
- Companionate Love: Intimacy and commitment.
- Consummate Love: A combination of intimacy, passion, and commitment (ideal love).

Altruism

Altruism involves acting in a socially desirable manner to benefit others without expecting any reward, even at personal risk.
Bystander Effect: The presence of others influences the decision to help or not, with people less likely to help as the number of bystanders increases.
Diffusion of Responsibility: Individuals may feel less responsible for taking action when others are present, as they perceive responsibility to be shared.
Bystander Apathy: A lack of action or assistance due to the presence of others.
Latane and Darley's research demonstrates that the best odds of receiving help increase when individuals are the only witness.

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Description

This quiz explores the fundamentals of learning, including biological processes and key theories such as Behaviourism and Social Cognition. It also delves into Classical Conditioning as an associative learning phenomenon developed by Ivan Pavlov, highlighting the interplay between stimuli and responses.