HSC1010 The Environment - Part 1 - Lecture 3 (Week 9)

HSC1010 The Environment Part 1: Learning & Conditioning Presented by: Dr Peter Tay, Assistant Professor in Psychology Developed by: Dr Angela Papadimitriou, Clinical Psychologist & Dr Peter Tay Learning Objectives Define learning, behaviourism & conditioning Understand cla...

HSC1010 The Environment Part 1: Learning & Conditioning Presented by: Dr Peter Tay, Assistant Professor in Psychology Developed by: Dr Angela Papadimitriou, Clinical Psychologist & Dr Peter Tay Learning Objectives Define learning, behaviourism & conditioning Understand classical conditioning Describe classical conditioning applications Understand operant conditioning Distinguish different types of reinforcement and punishment Describe operant conditioning applications and its challenges Distinguish between cognitive learning theories and social cognitive learning theories Identify key Influences for learning Learning Learning: the process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviour, including behaviour change, resulting from experience or practice When people learn anything, some part of their brain is physically changed to record what they learnt Learning in Psychology Behaviourism: learning is the result of observable acts and events, excluding mental processes Social Cognition: learning includes not only changes in behaviour but also changes in thoughts, expectations & knowledge, that in turn influence behaviour in a reciprocal process Classical Conditioning Pavlov and His Dogs Principles and Features Applications Learning & Conditioning Behaviorists focus on conditioning Conditioning: a theory that states behaviour can be modified or learned based on a stimulus and a response Conditioning is the process of learning associations (associative learning): linking events that occur close together Two types of conditioning: Classical conditioning (2 stimuli & a response) Operant conditioning (response & consequences) Classical Conditioning Pavlov: pioneer of basic principles of learning Russian physiologist accidentally discovered classical conditioning whilst studying digestive systems in dogs (early 1900s) Awarded Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1904 for his work on the physiology of digestion Classical Conditioning Elements Classical Conditioning: a previously neutral stimulus is paired with a stimulus that triggers a response and, in turn, acquires the capacity to trigger a similar or related response Food in dog’s mouth (unconditioned stimulus) → salivation (unconditioned response) Unconditioned Stimulus (US): a stimulus that triggers a response without additional learning Unconditioned Response (UR): response triggered by an US without additional learning Classical Conditioning Elements When a food dish (neutral stimulus) was regularly paired with food, it became associated with food (conditioned stimulus) and would trigger the dog to salivate (conditioned response) Conditioned Stimulus (CS): an initially neutral stimulus triggers a CR, when paired with an US Conditioned Response (CR): response triggered by CS Pavlov’s Experiments Series of experiments to confirm results of accidental discovery of classical conditioning: Ticking of a metronome Ringing of a bell Sound of a buzzer Switching a light on Touch on the leg Classical Conditioning Principles In order for classical conditioning to take place, the following must occur for CS & US: 1. CS must come before the US 2. CS and US must occur very close together in time (< 5 secs) 3. CS must be paired with the US many times 4. CS must be distinct from other competing stimuli  Classical Conditioning Features Generalisation: tendency to respond to a stimulus that is similar to the CS to trigger similar response: Fearing dentists surgeries and other clinics that smell similar (CS), due to association with painful tooth extraction (US) Discrimination: learn to distinguish between a CS and other irrelevant stimuli and respond differently Learning doctor is not associated with tooth extraction (US) Extinction: extinguishing the CR by repeatedly presenting the CS in the absence of the US Going to dentist for check-ups only, your fear (CR) gradually reduces Spontaneous Recovery: the reappearance of an extinguished CR after a pause Watching a show on oral surgery, your CR suddenly and temporarily returns Higher-Order Conditioning: the CS is paired with new neutral stimulus creating a new (weaker) CS Sign outside dentist’s surgery (NS) becomes a CS associated with the previous CS of surgeries and fear is experienced when you see the sign Why does it work? Classical Conditioning Explanations: Behavioural Perspective: CS becomes a substitute for US by activating same part of the brain (biological process) Cognitive Perspective: CS provides information or an expectancy about the coming of the US (predictive memory) Pavlov’s Legacy Nearly all organisms learn to adapt to their environment evolutionary adaptation allowing an organism to prepare for a biologically important event Learning can be studied objectively in labs Watson: real-life implications of Pavlovian theory on preferences, emotions & tastes (1920s) Classical Conditioning Applications Learning to like: positive emotional responses (for CS) to certain objects/events (US) Associate joy (UR) for favourite food (US) with household chores (CS) Learning to fear: pairing an US with a stimulus that elicits pain, surprise, or embarrassment (CS) Biological preparedness to acquire some fears more readily than others (eg., heights, snakes) Acquired Tastes: likes/dislikes for certain foods & odors Biological preparedness to develop taste aversions with one or few pairings due to survival instinct (bad food → illness) Reacting to medical treatments: unpleasant reactions to stimuli associated with medical treatments reduced pain or anxiety in response to placebos (pills & injections with no direct physical effect on illness)  Classical Conditioning Applications Learning to like: Reacting to medical treatments Learning to fear: Acquired Tastes: Operant Conditioning The Skinner Box Reinforcement and Punishment Features and Applications Operant Conditioning The 2nd type of conditioning studied by behaviourists Operant Conditioning: the process by which a response becomes more likely or less likely to occur, depending on its consequences (behaviour controlled by consequences) Skinner: American psychologist, developed a philosophy of science radical behaviourism (emphasises role of environment in producing behaviour); founded school of experimental research psychology (experimental analysis of behaviour) Skinner Box Consequences of Behaviour Skinner: A response (“operant”) is influenced by 2 types of consequences: 1. Reinforcement: the process by which a stimulus/event strengthens the response, or makes it more likely to recur 2. Punishment: the process by which a stimulus/event weakens the response, or makes it less likely to recur Reinforcers Primary & Secondary Reinforcers Primary Reinforcer: an innately reinforcing stimulus satisfying biological needs (e.g, hunger, thirst) Secondary Reinforcer: a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer (e.g., praise, “gold stars”) → Reinforcement Positive & Negative Reinforcement Positive Reinforcement: response is followed by the presentation or increase in intensity of a pleasurable stimulus resulting in the response becoming stronger or more likely to occur Negative Reinforcement: response is followed by the removal, delay, or decrease in intensity of an unpleasant stimulus resulting in the response becoming stronger or more likely to occur Schedules of Reinforcement Reinforcement Schedule: a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced Reinforcement timing: influences speed of learning, strengthens learned response and behaviour pattern Reinforcement schedule types: Continuous: reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs (quick learning) Partial: reinforcing a response only sometimes (slower but longer lasting learning) Schedules of Reinforcement SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT Continuous Partial Getting money from an ATM Based on Based on time Interval attempts Ratio Fixed Variable Fixed Variable monthly salary; Boss checking commission on winning at slot discounts every on you at your items sold; free machine or Tuesday work station coffee after 5 toto buys Punishment Punishment: the process by which a stimulus/event weakens the response, or makes it less likely to recur Reinforcement increases a behaviour; punishment decreases a behaviour Punishment works when immediate, consistent, and paired with reinforcement of actual behaviour desired Punishment types: Punishment by Application (positive punishment): something unpleasant follows the response Punishment by Removal (negative punishment): something pleasant is removed Reinforcement & Punishment Psychology, 4th ed. 2015 Ciccarelli & White Operant Conditioning Features Extinction: occurs when the behaviour is no longer followed by the consequence that reinforced it (reinforcer stops → behaviour stops) Generalisation: response reinforced (or punished) in presence of one stimulus occurs (or suppressed) in presence of similar stimuli Discrimination: response occurs in presence of one stimulus but not in presence of similar ones that differ from it Instinctive Drift: tendency to revert to instinctive behaviour (biological constraint) Shaping: reinforcing small steps, or each successive approximation until desired behaviour occurs Operant Conditioning Applications Behaviour Modification: the application of operant conditioning techniques to teach new responses or to reduce or eliminate problematic behaviour Used successfully in various professional settings: Pediatric hospital: help children with autism improve communication skills Mental hospital: train patients to communicate effectively and improve psycho-social functioning Rehabilitation ward: training patients with brain damage to control inappropriate behaviours Also, used successfully for common problems: Parenting: teaching parents to toilet train children Managing unhealthy habits: smoking, drinking Improving skills: exercising, studying Operant Conditioning Applications When behaviour modification is used inappropriately or incorrectly (non-psychologists; poorly trained professionals), reinforcement and punishment may lose their effectiveness Problems with punishment: Inappropriate administration (harsh methods for toddlers) Harsh or frequent punishment results in anxiety, fear or anger (severely punished teenager may run away) Effectiveness is temporary and dependent on the presence of punisher (misbehaving when parents absent) Most behaviour is hard to punish immediately (punishing dog when you get home for something done in morning) Does not instruct what the person should do (scolding student for learning slowly) Punishment may be reinforcing as it brings attention (mother yelling at child throwing tantrum in public) Operant Conditioning Applications Problems with reward: Rewards are often misused by being given indiscriminately, unrelated to desired behaviour (giving happy-face stickers or high grades undeservingly does not improve performance) Focusing on rewards that are not directly related to the ultimate goal undermines the purpose of the action (rewarding students for playing piano may distract from the joy of playing the piano) Effectiveness of rewards depends on many factors: initial motivation, the context in which rewards are achieved, sincerity of the person giving praise Learning & the Mind Biological predisposition: biological constraints predispose organisms to learn associations that enhance survival (resistant to learning: raccoons “washing” food) Cognitive Learning Theory: focuses on role of cognition (thought processes) on learning Latent Learning: learning occurs but not shown until the person has a reason to demonstrate it (Tolman’s maze-running rats) Insight Learning: all-of-a-sudden learning by understanding relationships of various parts of problem, rather than through trial and error (Kohler’s Smart Chimp) Learned Helplessness: tendency to fail to act due to past history of repeated failures (Seligman’s Depressed Dogs) Learning & the Mind Social cognitive learning theories: Importance of beliefs, perceptions and observations of other people’s behaviour in determining what we learn, what we do and the personality traits we develop Observational Learning: a process in which an individual learns new responses by observing the behaviour of another rather than through direct experience (Bandura and the Bobo Doll) The 4 Elements of Observational Learning: Attention Retention Reproduction Motivation Psychology, 11th ed. 2015 Myers & Dewall End The Environment – Part 1 of 2 HSC1010 The Environment Part 2: Behaviour in Social Context Presented by: Dr Peter Tay, Assistant Professor in Psychology Developed by: Dr Angela Papadimitriou, Clinical Psychologist & Dr Peter Tay Learning Objectives Understand the scope of social psychology & its key areas Describe the main factors affecting social influence Differentiate conformity, obedience and compliance Identify different ways groups can influence behaviour of the individual Describe social thinking and its key components Distinguish between attitudes and attributions Identify different types of social interaction Understand prejudice, its components, and causes Explain aggression through biology and experience Describe different types of prosocial relations Identify conditions with impaired social functioning Social Psychology Social psychology: the scientific study of how a person’s thoughts, feelings and behaviour are influenced by social groups (real, imagined, or implied presence of others) 3 main areas: Social Cognition (Thinking): the ways in which people think about other people Social Influence: the ways in which a person’s behaviour can be affected by the presence of others Social Interaction (Relationships): the positive and negative aspects of people relating to others Social Psychology Social cognition Social influences Social interactions 1. We construct our 6. Social behaviour is social reality also biological 2. Our social intuitions 4. Social influences behaviour are powerful, shape behaviour 7. Feelings & actions sometimes perilous 5. Dispositions shape towards people are 3. Attitudes shape, and behaviour sometimes negative; are shaped by, sometimes positive behaviour Social psychology’s principles are applicable to everyday life Applying social psychology Social Influence Conformity Groupthink and Group Behaviour Compliance and Obedience Social Influence Social Influence: behaviour is intentionally or unintentionally influenced by others Major factors affecting social influence: Conformity Groupthink Group Behaviour Compliance (Power) Obedience (Authority) Conformity Complying with Social Pressures: change in one’s opinions to match that of other people, as a result of real or imagined pressure from others Classic study on conformity: Line Experiment (Asch 1951) Participants sit in a line Participants given two diagrams Participants asked which line in second box similar to first line All but last participant instructed (before experiment) to chose B What did the last participant say? What would you say? Conformity Factors increasing conformity (McLeod, 2018): when made to feel incompetent or insecure when in a group of 3 confederates when in a group where everyone else agrees when admire group’s status and attractiveness when have not made prior commitment to a response when know that others in group will observe our behaviour when from a culture that strongly encourages respects for social standards When the task is difficult Why people conform: Normative influence: Need to feel approved (Isenberg, 1986) Informational influence: Need for information; others’ behaviour provides information on how to act in ambiguous situations (Kim & Hommel, 2015) Groupthink Extreme form of conformity When people within a group feel it is more important to maintain group unity rather than critically evaluate facts when making decisions (e.g., weapons of mass destruction) Leads to faulty decisions as group members vulnerable: illusion of invulnerability: group can do no wrong self-censorship (lack of disagreement): skeptics do not voice concerns pressure on skeptics to conform by members & leader Illusion of unanimity (self-deception & insularity): illusion of consensus through suppression of opposing and alternative views Group Behaviour Influence of a group on the behaviour of the individual Group polarization: if a group is like-minded, discussion strengthens its prevailing opinions members in group discussions make more extreme decisions than individuals not in discussion (e.g., jury) Social facilitation: Positive influence of others on performance if task perceived as easy Social impairment: Negative influence of others on performance if task perceived as difficult Group Behaviour Social loafing: people do not work as hard when in a group than individually; easy to “hide” in a group Deindividuation: loss of awareness of one’s own individuality in groups or crowds: Increases: as groups get larger when group members wear masks or uniforms destructiveness or helpfulness depending on social norms Compliance Doing what you are asked: A change in one’s behaviour requested by another person or group, often with no real authority or power Compliance – a major topic of interest for consumer psychology that studies the habits of consumers in the marketplace to increase sales Compliance Techniques Foot-in-the-Door Technique: initial small request acts as an opener for a bigger one. Door-in-the-Face Technique: initial large request, when rejected, followed by smaller one. Lowball Technique: once commitment made, cost ↑ Obedience Following Orders: a change in one’s behaviour at the command of an authority figure Milgram’s classic study on obedience (1963): participants were presented with a control panel. Each participant (“teacher”) was instructed to give electric shocks (15 - 450 volts) to another person (the “participant/learner”) who only pretended to be shocked Obedience How far do you think most “teachers” went? 2/3 obeyed to fullest extent, 65% in replication study (1974) Social Cognition Attitudes Attributions Social Interactions Prejudice and Discrimination Social Cognition Social Cognition: how people think about other people and how those thoughts influence behaviour toward those people Social thinking is based on: Attitudes Impressions Attributions Attitudes Evaluations that predispose us to respond positively or negatively to people, objects, ideas, or situations Attitudes consist of 3 components: Affective (feelings: way you feel) Behavioural (response tendencies: what you do) Cognitive (beliefs: what you believe) Affective (emotions, “guns make me sick” feelings) “gun owners are more likely Attitude on gun Cognitive to shoot a loved one than a control (beliefs, ideas) criminal” Behavioural “I vote for gun control (actions) politicians” Attitudes Attitudes: often poor predictors of behaviour Attitudes may be implicit (unconscious) or explicit (conscious) Attitude formation: Direct contact with person, situation, object, or idea Interaction with other people who hold a certain attitude Direct instruction from parents or others Observational learning: watching others’ actions and reactions to ideas, people, objects, and situations Attitudes Attitude Change = Persuasion: The process by which a person’s attitudes or behaviour are influenced by communications from others Key elements: source of message (communicator) the actual message (must be clear and well-organised) target audience (profile of audience) the medium (method of communication) Cognitive dissonance: discomfort experienced when behaviour is inconsistent (conflicts) with personal cognitions Can be reduced by: 1) changing conflicting behaviour 2) changing conflicting cognition 3) developing new cognitions to justify behaviour Attitudes Impression formation: first impressions of person (enduring) Social categorisation: automatic & unconscious categorisation of a new acquaintance to a particular group, based on common characteristics with that group as experienced in past stereotype: a belief that a set of characteristics is shared by all members of a particular social group (superficial basis) Categorisation is based on Implicit Personality Theory: sets of assumptions about how different types of people, personality traits, and actions are all related (formed in childhood) schemas: mental patterns that represent what a person believes about certain types of people (organisational tool) schemas can become stereotypes (in adulthood) Attributions Global- specific Internal- external Attributions: Process by which we explain our own behaviour and the behaviour of others Stable- unstable Attribution formation: Situational attribution: Cause of behaviour due to external factors (delays, action of others, aspect of situation) Dispositional attribution: Cause of behaviour due to internal factors (personality, character) Fundamental Attribution Error: Tendency to overestimate the influence of person’s internal (dispositional) characteristics on behaviour and underestimate the external (situational) factors Social Interaction Social Interaction: positive & negative relations between people Social Interaction comprises Antisocial Relations Prejudice & Discrimination Aggression Prosocial Relations (socially desirable behaviour) Attraction Altruism Prejudice & Discrimination A real-life example: https://youtu.be/64it4eAQjnk Prejudice Prejudice: a prejudgement based on unsupported and negative stereotypes about members of a social group (e.g., age, gender, ethnicity, religion, weight) Comprises 3 parts: Beliefs (stereotypes) Emotions (e.g., hostility or fear) Predisposition to action (to discriminate) Discrimination: Unjustifiable negative behaviour toward a group and its members due to prejudice Prejudice Two types of prejudice: Explicit: prejudice that is conscious even if not publicly expressed Implicit: prejudice that is not consciously held Group Identity: us versus them In-groups: social groups with whom a person identifies; “us” Out-groups: social groups with whom a person does not identify; “them” Prejudice & Discrimination Experiment: Brown Eyes, Blue Eyes Causes of Prejudice Psychological causes: deflects feelings of anxiety, simplifies problems (scapegoat) Social causes: pressures from friends, relatives & others Economic causes: justifies a group’s economic interests and legitimises war Cultural & national causes: bonds people to own group Theories of Prejudice Social cognitive theory: prejudice is an attitude that is formed through cognitive processes in relation to understanding the social world. Realistic conflict theory: increasing degree of conflict between in-group and out-group seeking common resources (e.g., jobs, land). Social identity theory: 3 processes (categorisation, identification, comparison) responsible for formation of person’s identity within a social group. Overcoming Prejudice Social psychologists identify 4 conditions can decrease prejudice between groups: 1. Both sides must have equal legal status, economic standing and power 2. Authorities and institutions must provide moral, legal and economic support for both sides 3. Both sides must have opportunities to work and socialize together 4. Both sides must cooperate, working together for a common goal Social Behaviours Aggression Attraction and Love Altruism Social Functioning Aggression Aggression: Any behaviour (verbal or physical) intended to harm someone physically or emotionally Aggressive behaviour stems from the interaction of biology and experience (psychological & social-cultural) Biology & Aggression: fighting instinct for survival partly attributed to genetics, triggered by variations in brain function (amygdala activation), and internal or external chemical influences (testosterone, alcohol) Aggression Experience & Aggression: Much of human aggression is influenced by learning Social learning theory: aggressive behaviour is learnt through observation of others (e.g., parents, siblings, friends) – Bandura study Adopting a social role (e.g., soldier) can lead to an increase in aggressive behaviour Childhood experience of abuse (does not necessarily mean that one will grow up to be an abuser) Exposure to violent media (TV, movies, video games) can increase physical & verbal aggression Attraction Attraction: Liking or having the desire for a relationship with another, based on: physical attraction proximity: physically near someone similarity: usually similar to oneself, but also different (opposites attract) reciprocity: liking people who like you Love Love: strong affection for another due to personal ties, sexual attraction, admiration, or common interests Love is a triangle (Sternburg): intimacy passion commitment Three types of Love: Romantic: intimacy and passion Companionate: intimacy and commitment Consummate: intimacy, passion and commitment (ideal love) Altruism Altruism: socially desirable behaviour that benefits others with no expectation of reward, even at own risk Altruism related to presence of others (Darley & Latane): The bystander effect: presence of others has an affect on the decision to help or not help less likely as number of observers increases Diffusion of responsibility: not taking responsibility or taking action due to presence of others who are perceived to share responsibility can lead to bystander apathy Altruism Psychology, 4th ed. 2015 Ciccarelli & White Altruism Best odds for helping someone (Latane et. al. research): Person appears to need and deserve help Person is in some way similar to us Person is a woman If have just observed someone else being helpful If not in a hurry If in a small town or rural area If feeling guilty If focused on others and not preoccupied If in a good mood Impaired Social Functioning Conditions with impaired social functioning: Autism Alzheimer’s Parkinson’s Huntington’s Depression Personality Disorders Anxiety Disorders End The Environment – Part 2 of 2