Information Processing Bottlenecks

Podcast

Play an AI-generated podcast conversation about this lesson

Questions and Answers

What primarily influences a person's judgment when evaluating an option in isolation?

The decision maker's experience with similar options

Attributes that are hard to evaluate

The overall quality of the object being evaluated

Attributes that are easy to evaluate (correct)

Which attribute is considered hard to evaluate?

An attribute that is directly measured

An attribute that can be easily compared to other options

An attribute without known distribution information (correct)

An attribute with known distribution information

What occurs in joint evaluation compared to separate evaluation?

Joint evaluation uses the reference information from both options. (correct)

Separate evaluation always provides higher valuations.

Reference information is always ignored in joint evaluation.

The low-value option is less favored in joint evaluation.

What effect was observed in the results of Study 2 concerning separate evaluation?

A clear less-is-better effect for Vendor L. Signup and view all the answers

How do people evaluate a gift compared to others in the same category?

In relation to its relative position within that category Signup and view all the answers

What is the likely impact of joint evaluation compared to separate evaluation?

It provides more references for comparison Signup and view all the answers

In the Dishes Set experiment, what was observed regarding willingness to pay (WTP) in separate evaluation?

Set L was valued more favorably despite containing fewer intact pieces. Signup and view all the answers

What characteristic distinguishes joint evaluation from separate evaluation?

The assignment of different reference points for the options. Signup and view all the answers

What often happens when individuals evaluate gifts without a point of comparison?

They struggle to determine the value Signup and view all the answers

Which is true about the evaluability hypothesis?

It focuses on the relative position of an option Signup and view all the answers

How do preferences shift between separate and joint evaluation modes?

Lower-value options are favored in separate evaluations. Signup and view all the answers

What key finding is related to the comparison of two options during evaluation?

Reference points may differ based on evaluation mode. Signup and view all the answers

What does separate evaluation limit regarding decision-making?

The availability of reference points Signup and view all the answers

What tendency was identified with regard to valuations in separate evaluation mode?

Lower valuations are often placed on high-value alternatives. Signup and view all the answers

In evaluating a product, why might a person disregard actual price?

They are more aware of relative positions within the category Signup and view all the answers

What conclusion can be drawn about preferences based on the research findings?

Valuation can be influenced by the mode of evaluation. Signup and view all the answers

What effect does a positive framing of decision options have on people's choices?

It results in risk-averse choices. Signup and view all the answers

What tends to happen when decisions are framed in negative terms?

Individuals show risk-seeking behavior. Signup and view all the answers

In the context of mixed gambles, what does loss aversion typically cause?

Extremely risk-averse choices. Signup and view all the answers

What limitation in prospect theory is highlighted concerning disappointing outcomes?

It overlooks the disappointment of failing to win. Signup and view all the answers

How does prospect theory treat the outcome of winning nothing in different gambles?

It gives a value of zero in all cases. Signup and view all the answers

What assumption do both prospect theory and utility theory share?

Choices are made independently and evaluated separately. Signup and view all the answers

What is a prominent issue faced when comparing the two problems about the 90% chance to win $1 million?

Anticipated pain of losing varies due to expected outcomes. Signup and view all the answers

What concept explains that decisionmakers assess outcomes relative to a neutral reference point?

Reference Dependence Signup and view all the answers

In problem 3, what was the psychological perception of the $1,000 gain?

It is viewed as a gain of $500 Signup and view all the answers

What behavior is typically exhibited when a sure loss is compared to a larger probable loss?

Diminishing sensitivity can lead to risk-seeking behavior. Signup and view all the answers

What does diminishing sensitivity refer to in the context of financial outcomes?

The psychological value increases with larger deviations from any reference point Signup and view all the answers

What phenomenon explains why a loss of $100 is felt worse than a gain of $100?

Loss Aversion Signup and view all the answers

What preference did participants exhibit in problem 4 compared to problem 3?

Preferred the sure thing in problem 4 and the gamble in problem 3 Signup and view all the answers

What effect did the change in the decision frame have on participant choices in the Asian disease problem?

It led to a preference reversal between programs A and B Signup and view all the answers

Which outcome is viewed as a loss in problem 3?

The potential to lose $500 Signup and view all the answers

In the context of financial decisions, what is typically regarded as the usual reference point?

The status quo Signup and view all the answers

What common tendency is highlighted in the bat-and-ball problem?

Overconfidence in one's intuition Signup and view all the answers

Why is the syllogism about roses and flowers considered flawed?

It does not logically follow from the premises. Signup and view all the answers

What behavior do respondents exhibit when estimating murder rates in Michigan?

Let familiarity with Detroit influence their estimates. Signup and view all the answers

What does the bat-and-ball problem suggest about System 1 thinking?

It relies on automatic memory retrieval. Signup and view all the answers

How does System 2 thinking differ from System 1 in terms of reasoning?

It involves deliberate checking and active searching. Signup and view all the answers

What impact does overconfidence have on people’s assessment of arguments?

It leads to a reduction in cognitive effort. Signup and view all the answers

Why do respondents who were questioned about Michigan give lower murder estimates?

They do not think of Detroit when asked about Michigan. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following illustrates a reasoning flaw common among college students?

The belief in the validity of faulty arguments. Signup and view all the answers

What does the research indicate about the nature of human rationality?

Constant errors are inherent in the thinking process itself. Signup and view all the answers

What is the essence of intuitive heuristics as described in the content?

To resolve complex questions by directly answering simple ones. Signup and view all the answers

In cases where intuitive guesses fail, what type of thinking is employed according to the content?

Systematic and analytical 'slow thinking'. Signup and view all the answers

What does the affect heuristic imply about decision-making?

Judgments are based significantly on feelings rather than rational thought. Signup and view all the answers

What challenge do experts face when their intuitive choices coincide with logical flaws?

Their decisions might rely on unrelated, simpler questions. Signup and view all the answers

How does expert intuition operate according to the content?

It recognizes familiar elements in new situations. Signup and view all the answers

What significant impact does 'Prospect Theory' have on behavioral economics?

It establishes a basis for analyzing choices made under risk and uncertainty. Signup and view all the answers

What primarily underlies the consistent deviations from rational choice in decision-making?

Systematic errors influenced by mental processes. Signup and view all the answers

What role do schemas play in categorization of objects?

They encode default assumptions for object membership. Signup and view all the answers

How do judgments about nontypical objects vary according to participant responses?

Judgments tend to vary significantly among participants. Signup and view all the answers

What is indicated by the variation in naming cups versus bowls in an experiment?

The boundaries of the cup category are unclear and subjective. Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'degree of category membership' refer to in the context of schemas?

It indicates that categories can include objects with varying attributes. Signup and view all the answers

What issue arises from participants' responses when categorizing atypical objects?

Responses demonstrate that categorization is often subjective and inconsistent. Signup and view all the answers

Which hypothesis suggests systems for converting perceptions into abstract representations?

Amodal Hypothesis Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of categorization in relation to perception?

To simplify perception and cognition Signup and view all the answers

What structure does semantic memory employ to store categorical information?

Hierarchical network Signup and view all the answers

How are sentences in semantic memory expected to be verified based on their level?

Lower-level sentences are verified more quickly Signup and view all the answers

What does the multimodal hypothesis propose regarding information transfer?

Information can be converted to different modalities Signup and view all the answers

What negative effect can arise from categorization in cognitive processes?

Stereotyping Signup and view all the answers

When converting a visual representation into a motor representation, what is the first step according to the amodal hypothesis?

Convert to abstract representation Signup and view all the answers

What role do links play in semantic networks regarding hierarchical representation?

They establish category hierarchies Signup and view all the answers

What influences the strength of the association between a fact and a concept?

The frequency with which the fact is encountered Signup and view all the answers

What is described as default values in a schema?

Common features of a category that are not exclusive Signup and view all the answers

In the context of schemas, what term is used to describe the relationship between categories and their attributes?

Slot structure Signup and view all the answers

What does the recall experiment about an office suggest about schemas?

Default values can result in false recall of items Signup and view all the answers

How do schemas aid in the inference of facts about a concept?

They allow for assumptions based on typical features Signup and view all the answers

What is implied by the psychological reality of schemas based on participants' recall in an experiment room?

Schemas can shape memory and lead to inaccuracies Signup and view all the answers

What aspect of knowledge do schemas struggle to capture effectively?

General knowledge about typical attributes Signup and view all the answers

What term describes the hierarchical structure associated with schemas?

Part hierarchy Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes goal-directed attention from stimulus-driven attention?

Goal-directed attention is linked to left lateralized brain activity. Signup and view all the answers

Where do serial bottlenecks in human information processing typically occur?

At points where information selection takes place. Signup and view all the answers

How does the multimodal hypothesis differ from the amodal hypothesis?

Multimodal hypothesis supports various representation systems across senses. Signup and view all the answers

Which brain regions are particularly important in executive control related to attention?

Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and anterior cingulate. Signup and view all the answers

What kind of changes in pictures do participants most readily remember?

Meaning-significant changes. Signup and view all the answers

What characteristic is associated with stimuli that capture stimulus-driven attention?

They typically involve sudden, noticeable disruptions. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements accurately describes early-selection and late-selection theories?

Early-selection theories posit bottlenecks happen prior to cognitive processing. Signup and view all the answers

How is memory for events affected by attention to different aspects of those events?

Memory is enhanced for meaningful aspects that received attention. Signup and view all the answers

What is the common principle regarding the relationship between stimulus and sensation intensity?

Sensation intensity grows in accordance with the strength of the stimulus. Signup and view all the answers

Which law did Daniel Bernoulli use to represent the decreasing marginal utility of money?

Logarithmic function Signup and view all the answers

What type of function did Cramer use to explain the growth of utility in relation to wealth?

Power function Signup and view all the answers

What happens to the subjective value of each additional penny as the total amount of money increases, according to both Cramer and Bernoulli?

It grows less rapidly. Signup and view all the answers

How do the graphical representations of the logarithmic and power functions differ, despite both being concave downward?

They have different exponent values. Signup and view all the answers

What does the concept of diminishing marginal utility imply in the context of wealth?

Utility increases but at a decreasing rate as wealth increases. Signup and view all the answers

Which statement accurately describes the subjective impression of value associated with money according to the psychophysical laws discussed?

The subjective value of money can decrease as the amount increases. Signup and view all the answers

What common misconception do both Cramer and Bernoulli’s laws address regarding money and utility?

Both conclude that each additional unit of money provides less utility as quantity increases. Signup and view all the answers

How does the subjective value relate to the number of dollars according to Bernoulli's assumption?

Subjective value grows as the square root of the number of dollars. Signup and view all the answers

What assumption underlies Cramer's power function regarding utility?

Added utility grows smaller as total utility increases. Signup and view all the answers

What is the relationship described by Fechner's law regarding stimulus and sensation?

A geometric increase in stimulus results in an arithmetic increase in sensation. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best characterizes loudness and pitch in terms of their continuum types?

Loudness is a prothetic continuum; pitch is a metathetic continuum. Signup and view all the answers

What does the psychophysical power law state about stimulus and sensed effect?

Equal stimulus ratios produce equal subjective ratios. Signup and view all the answers

According to Fechner, how is sensation quantified?

By measuring just noticeable differences (JND) in experimental settings. Signup and view all the answers

What fundamental principle does the psychophysical power law challenge in understanding sensory perception?

The relation between changes in stimulus and perception can be logarithmic or power-based. Signup and view all the answers

Which sensory aspect is characterized as having degrees of magnitude?

Loudness Signup and view all the answers

Signup and view all the answers

What can reduce the likelihood of the less-is-better effect occurring?

When the values of concern are easy to evaluate. Signup and view all the answers

What is a potential outcome when both stimulus options are overfilled in the ice cream example?

No less-is-better effect is observed. Signup and view all the answers

Why might the separate evaluation method be considered imperfect?

The preferred option may differ from the more objectively valuable option. Signup and view all the answers

In what scenario is the less-is-better effect more likely to emerge?

When one option is better than its reference and another is worse. Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'relation-to-reference' imply in the context of option evaluation?

The comparison is made against a standard or benchmark. Signup and view all the answers

What type of evaluation is more focused on emotions and influenced by quick, instinctive reactions?

Separate evaluation Signup and view all the answers

Which system primarily influences joint evaluation and involves careful assessment?

System 2 Signup and view all the answers

When comparing two options in a joint evaluation, what aspect is often more stable?

Judgment consistency Signup and view all the answers

What can lead to a preference reversal when options are evaluated separately?

Higher selling price for one option Signup and view all the answers

Which statement best captures the nature of judgments made within categories?

They are coherent when evaluated within the same category. Signup and view all the answers

What is a notable characteristic of separate evaluation compared to joint evaluation?

Involves higher ambiguity in judgments Signup and view all the answers

In the context of gambling bets, what outcome tends to favor joint evaluation?

Selecting riskier options Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following evaluation types is likely to elicit less surprise and ambiguity?

Joint evaluation Signup and view all the answers

What was the observed outcome for Vendor L's serving in a separate evaluation compared to joint evaluation?

Vendor L's serving was valued lower than Vendor H's in joint evaluation. Signup and view all the answers

In the Dishes Set experiment, what was the willingness to pay (WTP) for Set L compared to Set H in separate evaluation?

Set L was valued more favorably than Set H. Signup and view all the answers

What general trend was demonstrated in preferences between separate and joint evaluations?

There was a clear preference reversal between the two evaluation modes. Signup and view all the answers

How do people typically reassess their valuations of options when engaged in joint evaluation?

They use alternative options as primary reference points. Signup and view all the answers

What is a significant finding related to the reference points used in separate evaluation?

Different options may have distinct reference points influencing evaluations. Signup and view all the answers

What explains the higher valuation of low-value options in separate evaluations?

Comparison information available at the evaluation time. Signup and view all the answers

What critical factor differentiates joint evaluation from separate evaluation?

Utilization of one option as a reference for the other. Signup and view all the answers

Which evaluation mode tends to expose a preference for lower-value options based on available reference points?

Separate evaluation. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of System 1 in the decision-making process?

To generate coherent beliefs based on intuitive impressions Signup and view all the answers

What is a common outcome of overconfidence in judgment?

Underestimation of the uncertainty surrounding beliefs Signup and view all the answers

How can the framing effect influence decision-making?

It can evoke different emotions based on how information is presented Signup and view all the answers

What describes base-rate neglect in decision-making?

The tendency to value detailed, vivid descriptions over statistical facts Signup and view all the answers

Which characteristic is associated with normative decision theories?

Assuming well-defined and consistent preferences across different scenarios Signup and view all the answers

What is a feature of the positive test strategy in hypothesis testing?

It focuses on gathering evidence that supports existing beliefs Signup and view all the answers

What is a common cognitive bias related to decision-making under uncertainty?

The inclination to accept coherent narratives over ambiguous information Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'coherence seeking' imply in the context of judgment?

The tendency to create a consistent narrative from available evidence Signup and view all the answers

What describes a hard-to-evaluate attribute?

An attribute whose distribution information is not known to the decision maker. Signup and view all the answers

What is the main influence on people's evaluation of a gift when compared to others in the same category?

The relative position of the gift within its price category. Signup and view all the answers

In separate evaluation, what is a limitation faced by decision makers?

Lack of reference points for evaluation. Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes easy-to-evaluate attributes from hard-to-evaluate attributes?

Easy-to-evaluate attributes have known distributions, while hard ones do not. Signup and view all the answers

How does understanding the distribution information of an attribute affect decision-making?

It helps individuals evaluate the attribute's value accurately. Signup and view all the answers

What is likely to happen to people's judgments when they only evaluate objects in isolation?

They might overlook important comparative information. Signup and view all the answers

What hypothesis predicts that one's evaluation of a gift is influenced more by its relative position than by its actual price?

The evaluability hypothesis. Signup and view all the answers

What is a typical response when participants evaluate a $55 wool coat compared to other coats priced from $50 to $500?

They will see it as inexpensive based on its relative position. Signup and view all the answers

Under what conditions is jumping to conclusions considered efficient?

When the situation is well-known and costs of mistakes are low Signup and view all the answers

What bias is described as an uncritical acceptance of suggestions and exaggeration of improbable events?

Confirmation bias Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes System 1's operation?

It constructs coherent stories based on activated ideas without requiring complete information. Signup and view all the answers

How does the Halo Effect influence perceptions of individuals?

It leads to overall evaluations of a person based on limited observations. Signup and view all the answers

What is a major weakness of System 1 thinking when it comes to interpreting information?

It is insensitive to the quality and quantity of information informing impressions. Signup and view all the answers

What allows System 2 to prevent errors that arise from System 1?

It engages in critical and logical reasoning. Signup and view all the answers

Which situation is most likely to lead to risky jumping to conclusions?

When the situation is unfamiliar and the stakes are high. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary measure of success for System 1?

The coherence and story built from available information. Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Serial Bottlenecks in Information Processing

Psychologists propose serial bottlenecks in human information processing, where parallel processing is no longer possible.
Bottlenecks occur at specific points where processing everything in parallel is impossible.
Example: Walking and chewing gum simultaneously is possible, but trying to do two things at once using the same motor system is difficult.

Theories of Attentional Bottlenecks

Early selection theories suggest bottlenecks occur early in the processing of information.
Late selection theories suggest bottlenecks occur later, after information has been selected.
Attentional processes are responsible for selecting relevant information at bottlenecks.

Stimulus-Driven vs. Goal-Directed Attention

Stimulus-driven attention is triggered by external stimuli.
Goal-directed attention is focused on specific, predetermined goals.
Neural imaging research indicates that goal-directed attention is more left-lateralized, while stimulus-driven is more right-lateralized.
Prefrontal regions, especially the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and anterior cingulate, are crucial in executive control.

Memory for Meaningful Interpretations of Events

People are more sensitive to meaningful changes in pictures rather than noticing minor details.
The focus on meaning not detail demonstrates a higher-level processing of information to construct a complete, meaningful interpretation of events.

Multimodal Hypothesis vs. Amodal Hypothesis

Multimodal hypothesis: Representations are tied to various perceptual and motor systems with direct conversion between them. Example: converting a visual representation to a motor representation.
Amodal hypothesis: Representations are converted into abstract representations of significance before being converted to a motor representation.
Information is retained in the central meaning system. Example: The central meaning system retains this information in the amodal hypothesis.

Categorization and Semantic Networks

Categorization simplifies perception and cognition based on similarities in relationships among objects or features.
Categorical knowledge is represented in a network structure with a certain hierarchical structure
Semantic networks store information on specific entities in an organized manner (canaries, birds, etc.)
Nodes for categories linked w/ isa links to represent hierarchy (e.g., canary is-a bird is-a animal)

Schemas

Schema capture general knowledge about a concept.
Organize concepts through slots and values.
Example of a schema for "House": attributes (parts, materials) with their associated values (rooms, wood, brick).
Helps generalize categorical knowledge of a concept rather than explicitly list all features.

Psychological Reality of Schemas

Schemas influence recall by default assumptions.
Schemas affect memory for specific, but not all, features of a location.
Example: 29/30 participants recalled chairs, desks, and walls when describing a room even though these were not present. Implies pre-set expectations.
Schemas allow deviation from typical cases. For example, apples are categorized as fruit more readily than watermelons, and robins more readily than chickens.
People's judgment about atypical objects varies greatly. For instance, people had disagreements about whether a stroke is a disease.

The Psychophysical Law

Describes the relationship between stimulus intensity and subjective sensation intensity.
Logarithmic and power laws are two competing theories describing the relationship.
Utility represents subjective value from a stimulus, like money; where the magnitude of utility lessens as the dollar value increases. Example: The subjective value attaching to a sum of money decreases as the sum increases.

Fechner's Law

Mathematical relationship between stimulus and sensation.
Describes that as stimulus increases geometrically, sensation increases arithmetically.

Studying That Suits You

Use AI to generate personalized quizzes and flashcards to suit your learning preferences.

Description

This quiz explores the concept of serial bottlenecks in human information processing as proposed by psychologists. It covers theories of attentional bottlenecks, distinguishing between early and late selection, and discusses stimulus-driven versus goal-directed attention. Test your understanding of these significant cognitive processes.