Psychology Attention and Attentional Processes

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Questions and Answers

Which characteristic of attention describes its ability to focus on specific stimuli while ignoring others?

Attention as a limited resource

Attention is goal-directed

Attention can be captured

Attention is selective (correct)

In Broadbent's 1952 study, what was the primary task participants were asked to perform?

Focus on one message while ignoring another (correct)

Identify the source of simultaneous sounds

Count the words in each message

Shadow two different messages simultaneously

What aspect of attention does the 'cocktail party effect' illustrate?

The limitation of attention during visual search tasks

The difficulty of multitasking

The ability to selectively attend to one conversation among many (correct)

The importance of directional attention

What was a significant finding from Cherry's 1953 study regarding listening tasks?

Dichotic listening was easier than shadowing tasks Signup and view all the answers

Which statement best captures the meaning of attention being described as a 'limited resource'?

There is a finite capacity to process information simultaneously Signup and view all the answers

How does attention vary in terms of effort according to the characteristics outlined?

Attention can vary based on task complexity and distractions Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best exemplifies attention being 'dirigible'?

Shifting focus from one topic to another rapidly Signup and view all the answers

In the context of attention, how is the term 'divided attention' typically defined?

Focusing on multiple stimuli without losing track of the primary task Signup and view all the answers

What does Broadbent's filter theory suggest about how humans process information from multiple stimuli?

Sensory information is filtered first based on physical characteristics before being fully processed. Signup and view all the answers

In the attenuation model proposed by Treisman, how are unattended messages treated?

They are weakened and only analyzed if they exceed a certain threshold. Signup and view all the answers

What evidence contradicts Broadbent's early selection theory?

The own name effect where participants notice their name in the unattended ear. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the late selection model developed by Deutsch and Deutsch?

All incoming information is analyzed first before the filtering occurs, based on meaning. Signup and view all the answers

What phenomenon illustrates that some unattended information is processed, which challenges early selection theories?

Channel switching effect, where participants report information from the irrelevant channel. Signup and view all the answers

According to the research on conditioning with electric shocks, how does the body respond to conditioned words presented in the unattended channel?

Responses show increased skin conductance indicating awareness of the words. Signup and view all the answers

How does the concept of a bottleneck relate to the limited capacity channel in attention processing?

It highlights that attention can only focus on one stimulus at a time. Signup and view all the answers

What is a limitation of the late selection model regarding cognitive resources?

It demands high cognitive resources because all information is processed. Signup and view all the answers

What does Treisman's attenuation model suggest about information from irrelevant channels?

It can still activate concepts in long-term memory. Signup and view all the answers

What is a main effect observed in participants with low working memory capacity regarding attention?

They frequently notice irrelevant stimuli. Signup and view all the answers

In the context of attention, what does the 'spillover' effect imply?

Attention can overlap into irrelevant areas when resources are available. Signup and view all the answers

According to the own name effect studied by Conway et al., which group is less likely to notice their name in a distracting environment?

Individuals with high working memory capacity. Signup and view all the answers

What kind of attention shift does the slippage model support?

Attention shifts can occur involuntarily. Signup and view all the answers

What does repetition priming demonstrate in cognitive processing?

Repeated exposure to words speeds up recognition of the second occurrence. Signup and view all the answers

What conclusion did Dawson and Schell's study support regarding the slippage model?

Attention can inadvertently slip to irrelevant channels. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following explains a significant challenge to early selection models of attention?

Certain cues can be recognized even when attention is diverted. Signup and view all the answers

What happens to response times when the prime and target are different, like 'tip' and 'CAT'?

Response times are slower. Signup and view all the answers

According to Latcher et al.’s priming task, where is the prime presented?

In a different location from the target. Signup and view all the answers

What does Lavie and Cox's hypothesis suggest about low perceptual load trials?

They can process more irrelevant information. Signup and view all the answers

How do Latcher and Lavie and Cox's theories differ in their handling of spillover?

Latcher claims spillover processing in irrelevant channels can be avoided. Signup and view all the answers

What conclusion can be tentatively made regarding identification without attention in the auditory domain?

There may be identification of words during sleep. Signup and view all the answers

What is the definition of the compatibility effect in the context of reaction times?

The difference in reaction times between compatible and incompatible trials. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes Lavie's view on perceptual processing?

It is capacity-limited and influenced by attentional load. Signup and view all the answers

What aspect of attention does spillover relate to according to Lavie?

The inevitability of processing irrelevant stimuli during low load tasks. Signup and view all the answers

What does the hybrid theory propose about perceptual processing?

It combines elements from both early and late selection theories. Signup and view all the answers

Which statement is true regarding high perceptual load tasks?

They focus attention entirely on the relevant task. Signup and view all the answers

What primarily differentiates change blindness from inattentional blindness?

Change blindness involves not noticing changes in visual stimuli, while inattentional blindness involves not noticing stimuli because attention is focused elsewhere. Signup and view all the answers

Which statement correctly describes the late selection model in relation to subliminal priming?

It indicates that stimuli can influence behavior without conscious awareness. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a characteristic of both change blindness and inattentional blindness?

Both result from a lack of attention and can happen even when aware of the task. Signup and view all the answers

What key limitation is associated with the study of subliminal priming as highlighted by its evaluation?

Conditions during the study often lack real-world relevance. Signup and view all the answers

Which statement best describes the function of attention as a spotlight?

Attention illuminates specific stimuli while excluding others. Signup and view all the answers

What does subliminal priming suggest about the late selection model of attention?

Processing occurs without conscious awareness of stimuli. Signup and view all the answers

In what way can attention be selectively directed?

Through conscious determination of what to ignore or attend to. Signup and view all the answers

What is a significant criticism of subliminal priming research regarding ecological validity?

The designs fail to replicate spontaneous decision-making environments. Signup and view all the answers

What effect does motivation have when individuals experience inattentional blindness?

Low motivation can contribute to overlooking significant information. Signup and view all the answers

Which scenario illustrates the concept of divided attention effectively?

Engaging in a conversation while visually scanning a crowded room. Signup and view all the answers

How is inattentional blindness characterized compared to change blindness?

Inattentional blindness involves failing to notice an unexpected stimulus. Signup and view all the answers

What happens to the recognition of a prime when it is different from the target?

Recognition is impaired, increasing response times. Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes the early selection model from the late selection model in attention?

Early selection suggests stimuli are never perceived. Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Attention and Attentional Processes

Attention allows focusing on a stimulus while ignoring others
Attention is goal-directed (e.g., finding someone)
Attention varies in effort (easy or hard)
Attention can be shifted like a spotlight
Visual search involves coordinated eye and attention movements; attention can be directed without eye movement
Attention focuses on zoomed-in items
Attention is selective, filtering out distractions
Attention is limited, acting as a resource
Attention can be captured and controlled, getting distracted by unexpected stimuli
Attention can be divided (e.g., listening and looking)
Inattentional blindness and change blindness are related to attention limitations.

Modern Attention Research

Modern research shifts from behaviorism to cognitivism
Relevant 1950s-60s studies exist

Broadbent's (1952) Study

Aim: Examine processing of multiple messages simultaneously
Task: Participants heard two simultaneous messages (e.g., "heart on Position 1?," "cross on Position 4?")
Condition: Focus on one message while ignoring the other
Results: 50% accuracy; accuracy decreased with similar stimuli
Shows attention difficulty processing multiple messages simultaneously (bottleneck).

Cherry (1953): Cocktail Party Effect

Investigated the cocktail party effect—the ability to selectively attend to one conversation in a noisy environment
Method: Two conditions: Shadowing task and Dichotic listening.
Results:
- Shadowing: Participants initially found it difficult to focus, but possible with more practice and only one participant tested for this part.
- Dichotic listening: Easier to attend to one ear.
- Unnoticed: Message meaning, language changes
- Noticed: Physical changes in voice or tone
Conclusions: Attention is easier with notable physical cues; difficult without them.

Broadbent's Filter Theory

An early selection model of attention
Incoming sensory info enters the "sensory buffer"
A "selective filter" identifies and blocks irrelevant stimuli based on physical properties (e.g., tone)
The "limited capacity channel" (attention) processes one item at a time (bottleneck).
Attention is required to process information

Evidence Against Early Selection Theory

Own-name effect: People notice their name in the unattended ear
Unattended information is analyzed automatically (contrary to early selection).
Channel switching: Participants can notice info from the unattended ear as the message changes to another ear
Conditioning: associating words with electric shocks; people show a physical (physiological) response to words associated with shocks even in the unattended channel
These show that info in unattended channel is not fully blocked; it's partially processed and analyzed

Alternative Models of Attention

Attenuation Model (Treisman, 1964): The filter weakens, not completely blocks, unattended stimuli, reducing their intensity. Attended stimuli are more intense. Information from irrelevant channels can leak through the filter (attenuation). Attenuated information can activate concepts in long-term memory.
Late Selection Model (Deutsch & Deutsch, 1963): All info is processed fully and then filtered based on meaning and other factors.

Leakage, Slippage, and Spillover

Leakage (Treisman, 1964): Information from unattended channels can still leak through, though reduced in intensity. Familiar information may cause leakage, leading to recognition of the stimulus.
Slippage (Lachter et al., 2004): Attention resources cannot be precisely aimed; attention may unintentionally shift to irrelevant channels. Attention cannot always be controlled precisely.
Spillover (Lavie): Attention will "spill over" to the irrelevant channel if the task is not resource-demanding. Attention cannot be stopped until all resources are used.

Own-Name Effect

Own-name effect depends upon working memory capacity (WMC):
- High WMC: Notice their own name <20% of the time
- Low WMC: Notice their own name > 65% of the time; Difficulty focusing attention.

Repetition Priming

Presented with a prime word (e.g., "cat") before a target word (e.g., "CAT"). Participants indicate if the target is a real word.
When prime and target are the same, recognition speeds up.
When different, the effect is less pronounced, and response times are longer. This finding supports early selection models.

Repetition Priming and Early Selection (Latcher et al., 200?).

Prime and target were presented in different locations.
Supports Broadbent’s theory: Attention is needed for identification, especially when the prime and target are not in the same location.

Identification Without Attention (Kouider et al., 2014)

Auditory training: Participants learned to respond to words (animals vs. man-made objects).
During sleep, new words were presented auditorily, and a response was detected by EEG.
Suggests that word meaning processing is possible even without attention during the sleep cycle

Lavie's Hybrid Theory (Lavie, 1995)

Combines early and late selection models.
Perceptual processing is automatic and capacity-limited.
Spillover happens if required attentional resources are not fully used in the attended task.
Lavie and Cox (1997): High compatibility trials with low perceptual load lead to longer reaction times versus high perceptual load trials.

Lavie vs. Lachter

Both agree that attention is necessary for irrelevant stimuli processing to occur.
Lachter proposes that with correct attention focus, spillover is avoidable.
Lavie argues that attentional processing capacity is a limited resource, and thus spillover is more likely during low perceptual load tasks.

Dawson and Schell (1982)

Evidence for the slippage model. (Skin conductance experiment)

Inattentional Blindness and Change Blindness

Change blindness: Inability to notice changes in a scene being attended to
Inattentional blindness: Failure to notice changes in a visual field due to attention being elsewhere.
Simons and Chabris (1999): Gorilla experiment demonstrating inattentional blindness
Hayman et al. (2010): Unicycling clown experiment demonstrating change blindness

Early vs. Late Selection Models

Early selection: Unnoticed stimuli never processed
Late selection: Stimuli processed, but not remembered.
Both mechanisms tied to attention and processing limitations.

Memory's Role

Memory may contribute to change or inattentional blindness but isn't universally necessary.

Subliminal Influences

Subliminal priming: Exposure to a stimulus below the threshold of awareness influencing subsequent responses to a related stimulus.
Priming: Short exposure to a stimulus influences responses to a related stimulus.
Successful examples of subliminal priming: Karremans et al. (2006)
Dextro example: Subliminally primed participants took dextro pills.

Evaluation of Subliminal Priming Studies

Low ecological validity: Often artificial conditions.
Motivation: Tasks might be difficult, leading to decreased participant motivation

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Description

Explore the fascinating concepts of attention and its processes in this quiz. Learn how attention allows us to focus on specific stimuli while filtering out distractions and adjusting to various cognitive tasks. Delve into modern research and key studies that have shaped our understanding of this essential cognitive function.