Glucose Homeostasis and Diabetes Mellitus
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Questions and Answers

What role does glucose play in the metabolism of cells?

  • It is primarily stored as fat in adipose tissue.
  • It is a universal fuel utilized by most cells for ATP production. (correct)
  • It serves only as an energy source for brain cells.
  • It acts as a waste product of cellular metabolism.

    • How does insulin primarily affect glucose levels after food ingestion?

  • It prevents glucose uptake in muscle cells.
  • It increases the rate at which glucose is transported into specific cells. (correct)
  • It converts glucose directly into fat for storage.
  • It has no significant effect on blood glucose levels.

    • What happens to glucose after it is absorbed by enterocytes?

  • It is transported back into the intestinal lumen.
  • It is immediately stored as glycogen.
  • It is converted into glucose-6-phosphate and trapped inside the cell. (correct)
  • It is released into the urine by the kidneys.

    • What is the half-life of insulin in circulation after its secretion?

    <p>About 5 minutes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which transporter is primarily involved in glucose transport into enterocytes?

    <p>SGLT1</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the physiological response of insulin after food is ingested?

    <p>It begins to rise within 10 minutes and peaks in 30 to 45 minutes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which cells are primarily influenced by insulin to promote glucose uptake?

    <p>Striated muscle cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is glucose-6-phosphate unable to do after its formation?

    <p>Pass through GLUT transporters back out of the cell.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterizes diabetes mellitus (DM)?

    <p>High levels of sugar in the blood</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of diabetes is primarily seen in childhood and requires daily insulin injections?

    <p>Type 1 diabetes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which risk factor is associated with Type 2 diabetes?

    <p>Obesity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common symptom of diabetes mellitus?

    <p>Polydipsia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What percentage of diabetes patients are classified as Type 1?

    <p>5-10%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What term describes the condition of high blood glucose levels?

    <p>Hyperglycemia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a risk factor for Type 1 diabetes?

    <p>Obesity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which demographic is more prone to developing Type 2 diabetes according to ethnic background?

    <p>African Americans</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a criterion for the diagnosis of diabetes mellitus?

    <p>Random plasma glucose 150 mg/dL</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main characteristic of metabolic syndrome?

    <p>Visceral obesity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which complication is associated with diabetes?

    <p>Cardiovascular disease</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the pKa in relation to acids?

    <p>The negative log of the ionization constant of an acid</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a recommended practice for foot care in diabetics?

    <p>Wash your feet every day</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which factor increases the risk of heart disease and stroke in diabetic individuals?

    <p>Insulin resistance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the impact of a high HbA1c level?

    <p>Represents long-term blood glucose levels</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following components is NOT a part of the management of diabetes mellitus?

    <p>Administration of chemotherapy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What condition results when there is an increase in the acidity of blood?

    <p>Acidosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the normal pH range of blood?

    <p>7.35 to 7.45</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which condition can lead to hyper-excitability of nerve cells?

    <p>Increased blood pH</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does decreased blood acidity influence enzyme activity?

    <p>Causes enzymes to become non-functional</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which compound is a volatile acid produced during cellular metabolism?

    <p>Carbonic acid</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What could cause an increase in blood alkalinity?

    <p>Decrease in acidic food intake</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following levels is typical for bicarbonate ($HCO3$) in the blood?

    <p>24 mEq/L</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common consequence of acidosis on the central nervous system?

    <p>Depression of the central nervous system</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of the lungs in maintaining acid-base balance?

    <p>To regulate the exhalation of carbon dioxide</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to the respiratory rate when there is a fall in blood pH due to acidosis?

    <p>The respiratory rate is stimulated and increases</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which condition is characterized by a pH less than 7.35 and a PCO2 greater than 45 mm Hg?

    <p>Respiratory acidosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following can cause respiratory alkalosis?

    <p>Excessive exercise</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role do chemoreceptors in the respiratory center play in acid-base balance?

    <p>They detect changes in blood CO2 levels</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following systems is NOT involved in the control of the blood's acid-base balance?

    <p>Heart</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What occurs in the body due to an accumulation of CO2 during respiratory acidosis?

    <p>Lowered blood pH</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the brain influence carbon dioxide levels in the blood?

    <p>By controlling the speed and depth of breathing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Glucose Homeostasis

    • Glucose is the primary fuel for energy production in the body.
    • Insulin, a hormone produced by the pancreas, plays a key role in regulating glucose metabolism during digestion.
    • Insulin acts by increasing the uptake of glucose into cells, particularly skeletal muscle.
    • Insulin promotes glucose storage as glycogen in muscle cells or its oxidation for energy.
    • Abnormalities in insulin production, secretion, or interaction with receptors can lead to diabetic conditions.

    Diabetes Mellitus (DM)

    • DM is characterized by high blood glucose levels (hyperglycemia), excessive thirst (polydipsia), and excessive hunger (polyphagia).
    • It is a growing global health concern affecting 1 in 10 adults globally.
    • Diabetes can be fatal, with 1.5 million deaths directly attributed to the condition in 2019.
    • Prevalence rates in Saudi Arabia are particularly high, reaching 17.7% in 2021.

    Types of Diabetes

    • Type 1 Diabetes (T1D): An autoimmune disease destroying pancreatic beta cells, leading to absolute insulin deficiency. T1D typically affects children and accounts for 5-10% of all diabetes cases.
    • Type 2 Diabetes (T2D): Characterized by insulin resistance, a condition where the body's cells are unable to respond properly to insulin despite sufficient insulin production.
    • Gestational Diabetes: Develops during pregnancy, often resolving after delivery. Women with gestational diabetes have an increased risk of developing T2D later in life.

    Risk Factors for Diabetes

    • Type 1 Diabetes: Family history of diabetes, disease of the pancreas, infections or illnesses affecting the pancreas.
    • Type 2 Diabetes: Obesity, family history of diabetes, history of gestational diabetes, ethnic background (African Americans, Native Americans, Hispanic Americans), older age, hypertension.

    Diagnosis of Diabetes

    • The American Diabetes Association (ADA) and World Health Organization (WHO) define diagnostic criteria for diabetes using blood glucose levels:
      • Fasting plasma glucose ≥ 126 mg/dL.
      • Random plasma glucose ≥ 200 mg/dL in patients with classic hyperglycemic symptoms.
      • 2-hour plasma glucose ≥ 200 mg/dL during an oral glucose tolerance test with a 75-gram glucose load.
      • Glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c) level ≥ 6.5%.

    Complications of Diabetes

    • Kidney Disease (Diabetic Nephropathy): Diabetes is a leading cause of kidney failure.
    • Blindness (Diabetic Retinopathy): High blood sugar can damage blood vessels in the retina, leading to vision loss.
    • Heart Disease and Stroke: Diabetics have a significantly higher risk of heart disease and stroke compared to the general population.
    • Nerve Damage (Diabetic Neuropathy): High blood sugar can damage nerves, leading to pain, numbness, and tingling.
    • Sores on Feet and Skin: Diabetics are more susceptible to infections and slow wound healing, potentially leading to amputations.
    • Diabetic Coma: A life-threatening complication caused by extremely high blood sugar levels.

    Management of Diabetes

    • Nutritional Therapy: A carefully planned diet is crucial for managing blood glucose levels.
    • Exercise: Regular physical activity improves insulin sensitivity and helps regulate blood sugar.
    • Education: Patient education about diabetes management, including self-monitoring, medication, and healthy lifestyle choices.
    • Pharmacologic Therapy: Medications, including insulin, are often required to control blood glucose levels.
    • Monitoring: Regular blood glucose monitoring is essential to track blood sugar levels.

    Patient Education (Foot Care)

    • Perform daily foot inspections.
    • Wash feet daily.
    • Keep skin soft and smooth.
    • Smooth corns and calluses gently.
    • Trim toenails weekly or as needed.
    • Wear shoes and socks at all times.
    • Protect feet from extreme temperatures.
    • Promote blood flow to the feet.
    • Regularly consult with a healthcare provider for foot care.

    Acid-Base Balance by the Respiratory System

    • Acids: Substances that release hydrogen ions (H+) in water.
    • Bases: Substances that accept hydrogen ions (H+).
    • pKa: A measure of an acid's strength, with lower pKa values indicating stronger acids.
    • The human body maintains blood pH within a narrow range (7.35-7.45) through various mechanisms.
    • The respiratory system plays a crucial role in regulating acid-base balance by controlling carbon dioxide (CO2) levels.
    • Increased CO2 in blood leads to acidosis, while decreased CO2 leads to alkalosis.

    Normal Acid-Base Values

    • [H+]: 40 nEq/L
    • pH: 7.40 (7.35-7.45)
    • PaCO2: 40 mm Hg (35-45)
    • HCO3: 24 mEq/L (22-26)

    Acidosis/Alkalosis

    • Acidosis: A condition of high blood acidity (low pH).
    • Alkalosis: A condition of high blood alkalinity (high pH).
    • pH changes can significantly affect cell function, altering nerve and muscle excitability, enzyme activity, and potassium (K+) levels.

    Control of Acid-Base Balance

    • The body utilizes various mechanisms to maintain acid-base balance:
      • Lungs: Control CO2 levels, affecting the amount of carbonic acid (H2CO3) in the blood.
      • Kidneys: Regulate bicarbonate levels, influencing blood pH.
      • Buffer Systems: Chemical systems that resist changes in pH.
    • The lungs respond quickly to changes in blood pH by adjusting breathing rate and depth to regulate CO2 levels.

    Types of Acid-Base Disorders

    • Respiratory Acidosis: Characterized by low blood pH and high PCO2 (hypercapnia). Causes include hypoventilation, conditions that impair breathing, and respiratory illnesses.
    • Respiratory Alkalosis: Characterized by high blood pH and low PCO2. Causes include hyperventilation due to anxiety, pain, fever, or other factors.

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    DM and Acid-Base Disorder Presentation Fall 2024 PDF

    Description

    This quiz covers the essential concepts of glucose homeostasis and diabetes mellitus, including types, symptoms, and global prevalence. Explore the role of insulin in glucose metabolism and the health implications of diabetes. Test your understanding of this critical health topic.

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