Gender Development and Social Cognition

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Questions and Answers

What condition occurs in genetically male individuals due to malfunctioning androgen receptors?

Klinefelter syndrome

Androgen insensitivity syndrome (correct)

Congenital adrenal hyperplasia

Turner syndrome

What role do androgens play in gender development?

They influence the development of external genitalia during prenatal development. (correct)

They are primarily responsible for gender identity formation.

They are linked exclusively to maternal behavior in females.

They have no significant effect on aggression levels.

Which of the following findings relates to girls with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH)?

They often reject physical play in favor of social games.

They are more likely to choose physically active play. (correct)

They are more likely to engage in sedentary activities.

They are more likely to prefer traditionally feminine toys.

At what age do gender differences in color preferences typically emerge, according to research?

By 3 years of age Signup and view all the answers

What is a major argument against biological accounts of gender-typed behavior?

The causal link between hormones, genes, and behavior has not been definitively established. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about same-sex modeling in children is true?

Children reward peers for gender-appropriate behavior as early as pre-school age. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT typically true about internal genitalia in biological males?

They contain ovaries. Signup and view all the answers

According to the information provided, what has been observed in twins regarding gender identity?

They show higher concordance in gender identity. Signup and view all the answers

What do Bussey and Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory primarily focus on concerning gender development?

Three interacting causal factors that influence gender development. Signup and view all the answers

How do hormone levels typically differ between biological sexes?

Women typically have higher levels of estrogen and progesterone than men. Signup and view all the answers

At what age do children typically begin to exhibit gender constancy?

6-7 years Signup and view all the answers

What is one role of cognitive consistency in the development of gender-typed behaviors?

It motivates children to mimic behaviors that align with their gender identity. Signup and view all the answers

What was the main finding from Ruble et al.'s experiment regarding children with high gender constancy?

They showed greater interest in gender-neutral toys when paired with same-sex children. Signup and view all the answers

Which statement best reflects the evidence against the necessity of gender constancy for gender typing development?

Early gender classification occurs without the need for gender constancy. Signup and view all the answers

Which aspect of gender constancy contributes to children seeking out same-sex playmates?

Increased awareness of personal gender identity Signup and view all the answers

What is a key difference between biological sex and gender in the context of psychology?

Gender incorporates social constructs and psychological aspects. Signup and view all the answers

Which hormone is primarily associated with male biological sex characteristics?

Dihydrotestosterone Signup and view all the answers

How do intersex conditions relate to biological sex?

They may have ambiguous genitalia or chromosomal variations. Signup and view all the answers

Which statement best describes the term cisgender?

Individuals who identify with the gender they were assigned at birth. Signup and view all the answers

What typically characterizes the reproductive function of females?

Presence of menses and ovulation. Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Learning Outcomes

Students should be able to explain different theories behind gender-typed behaviors, including cognitive, biological, and biopsychosocial theories.
Students should be able to explain how parents, peers, and marketing influences gender-typing in children.
Students should be able to describe the gender similarity hypothesis.
Students should be able to discuss gender differences in mathematical thinking, spatial skills, and aggression, using key theories of gender development.

Note on Content

Information provided often uses classic theories of gender, which assume a dichotomy and may not represent the experiences of non-binary individuals.
Future theories and research should account for these experiences and perceptions of gender.
The lack of this information in the materials does not reflect staff views but rather reflects current research and classic theories available.
The core reading materials are selected to include those who do not identify or express themselves within traditional male/female binaries.

Key Terms: Biological Sex

Biological sex is assigned at birth based on chromosomes, genitalia, and hormones.
Children can be categorized as female, male, or intersex.
Important note: biological sex and gender are often conflated, but are not the same in psychology.

Key Terms: Biological Sex (Table)

A table of biological sex characteristics distinguishes between female/woman, intersex, and male/man with corresponding details.

Key Terms: Gender

Gender is assigned at birth, aligning with biological sex.
Gender is a broad social construct encompassing psychological, behavioral, social, and cultural aspects that can change over time.
Individuals can be cisgender or transgender.

Key Terms: Gender-typing/expression

As children develop, they learn behaviors associated with their gender.
Gender-typing and expression involve processes by which individuals adopt observable behaviors consistent with societal norms and gender stereotypes.
Note that gender-typing and expression can change over time and vary across cultures.

Key Terms: Gender-typed behaviors

Gender-typed preferences and behaviors arise from a combination of biological, psychological, and sociocultural processes (biopsychosocial model).

Activity: Why study gender development?

Reflect on how gender development could provide insights into behavior.
Consider why understanding gender development would be beneficial.

Introduction to Gender Development

Studying gender development provides insight into the roles of nature and nurture.
It examines how parenting and socialization influence children's behavior.
It explores how children internalize societal expectations regarding gender roles.
It explores how children develop concepts about gender and their impact on behavior.

Key Questions

Developmental psychologists address two main questions:
When and why do gendered preferences and/or behaviors emerge?
What factors contribute to the development of gender differences?

Important Points to Remember

Many researchers reject the binary view of gender.
Finding gender differences can contribute to stereotypes, leading to the justification of inequality and the positioning of women in lower status roles.
Similarities between men and women far exceed differences.
With societal changes in opportunities, norms, and attitudes, gender differences have diminished, suggesting a strong impact of nurture.

Gender as Non Binary

Children and adolescents are increasingly reporting gender identities or expressions different from their birth assigned gender, or from social and cultural norms established at birth or assigned.
This includes non-binary identities such as those who identify as gender fluid.
These reports indicate that gender identity or expression may not adhere to traditional concepts of male/female binaries.

Three Stages of Gender Development - Kohlberg (1966)

Children gradually develop concepts of gender, based on observations and interactions.
Kohlberg suggests children learn gender through three stages, influenced by natural maturation.
Gender constancy understanding, which involves an understanding that gender remains consistent despite changes in appearance, is similar to a Piagetian concept concerning conservation.

Stage 1: Gender Identity (2-3 years old)

Children label themselves and others as boy/girl based on external appearances (like hairstyle).
They aren't typically aware of the difference between biological sex and gender, or that these aspects remain stable.

Stage 2: Gender Stability (4-5 years old)

Children recognize gender is relatively stable/constant over time.
Their understanding of gender is still based on appearance, not fully grasping gender constancy.
Kohlberg's theory assumes binary gender roles, thus boys become men and girls become women.

Stage 3: Gender Constancy (6-7 years old)

Children grasp gender identity is consistent despite changing appearances (e.g., a woman with short hair is still a woman).
Children are not expected to display consistent gender-typed behaviors until this stage of development.

Gender Constancy

Once children understand gender constancy, they start to seek out same-sex playmates and engage in activities consistent with their gender identity.
They often choose role models of their same sex to identify with and develop their behavior and values.

Gender Constancy - Why is it important?

Gender constancy is crucial for building consistent gender-typed understanding and behaviour.
This cognitive consistency is rewarding based on the self-conception of individuals.

Three Stages of Gender Development Evidence

Cross-cultural evidence supports the three stages of gender development (Munroe et al., 1984). Studies involving the USA, Belize, Kenya, Nepal, and the Pacific Islands of American Samoa demonstrate universal findings.

Evidence for Gender Constancy - Ruble et al. (1981)

Ruble and colleagues’ study using children and advertisements provided support for gender constancy.
Low gender constancy children play with toys regardless of whether they associate with boys or girls, while high gender constancy children generally did not.

Evidence Against Gender Constancy - Thompson (1975)

Thompson's study found children 2 years of age can correctly classify gender stereotyped toys, clothes, and appliances which suggest that early gender-typing appears before children achieve gender constancy.

Evidence Against Gender Constancy (other examples)

Children display gender-related preferences and behaviors before they fully understand gender constancy.
They often play with toys associated with their gender.
They imitate same-sex models.
They reward peers for gender-appropriate behaviors

Biological Accounts of Gender Development

This exploration looks at the role of androgens, a set of hormones involved in physical development.
Androgens tend to be at higher levels in men compared to women.
They're linked to the formation of external genitalia during development.
Androgens can affect behavior, for example, increased androgen production can respond to perceived threats and lead to increased aggression

Intersex / Hormone Component

Biological accounts consider intersex individuals and conditions like androgen insensitivity syndrome (AIS) and congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH).
AIS relates to genetically male individuals who have external characteristics of females due to androgen receptor malfunction.
CAH is associated with genetically female individuals having some male-typical characteristics because of adrenal gland issues.

Arguments For Gender Identity and Gender Typing

Biological accounts highlight the neurological and genetic basis of gender identity and gender-typing.
Transgender children may exhibit behaviours consistent with their gender identity early in their lives.
Evidence of gender identity variation may appear in twins, who can display similar gender identities.
Multiple genes could play a role in the development of gender identity amongst transgender individuals.

Arguments Against Biological Accounts

A causal relationship between hormones, genes, and behavior hasn’t been established.
Disentangling hormonal and genetic influences from social factors is difficult.
Biological sex is complex, and different aspects (e.g., hormones) may contribute to gender development differently.

This theory suggests that gender development results from the interaction of factors (cognitive, motivational, and biological processes) within the environment.
The interplay between personal, behavioral, and environmental forces influences how individuals develop and enact gender-typed behaviors.

Tuition: Children acquire knowledge directly from instruction related to gender roles.
Enactive experience: Children learn from the reactions others have to their behavior, understanding what behavior will get what reactions.
Observational learning: Based on observing others' behaviors and the consequences those behaviors have. Learning happens indirectly from observing adults and peers.

Tuition - Examples

Boys are more likely than girls to handle tasks like taking out bins, mowing the lawn, and assisting with carwashing.
Girls are more often tasked with caring for younger siblings.

Enactive Experience - Example

Parents were more likely to provide explanations to boys than girls for educational topics that they were observing together.

Why is gender-typing more rigid in boys?

Generally parents and peers react more negatively when boys do tasks typically associated with girls, compared to girls who participate in activities typically associated with boys.
Fathers often instill more stereotypical male behaviors compared to stereotypical female behaviours in daughters.
Societal statuses usually lean toward male, resulting in negative responses for a boy participating in “feminine” behaviours due to the possibility of loss of status or respect

Observational Learning - Example

Research reviewing 48 studies shows a significant correlation between parent's gender schemas and their children's gender attitudes and interests.

Marketing Influences

The labeling of toys and the use of associated colors (e.g., pink for girls, blue for boys) influences children's toy preferences.
This type of gendered marketing is a significant factor influencing gendered toy preferences.

The Gender Similarity Hypothesis - Hyde (2005)

Conducted a large study to evaluate the extent and nature of differences between males and females.
The study investigated gender differences across 128 different areas (including physical strength, moral reasoning, cheating behavior, problem-solving, self-esteem, and leadership).
Found most differences to be small or non-existent, showing that individuals are more alike than different.

The Gender Similarity Hypothesis - Small Differences

Some small differences were identifiable in some non-psychological factors like throwing speed/distance, sexuality, and physical aggression.

Examples of Gender Differences in Development - Mathematical Skills

Women are underrepresented in STEM fields.
Stereotypes about mathematical ability are pervasive amongst children, parents, and teachers.
Children often view men and women as equally able in mathematics but view men as superior in mathematical capacity compared to women.
Fathers often overestimate their sons' mathematical abilities and underestimate their daughters' abilities.

Examples of Gender Differences in Development - Mathematical Skills (continued)

There are no significant differences in mathematical abilities between children from preschool to adolescence (Hutchison et al., 2018).
Gender differences in math typically appear later in adolescence, particularly amongst higher-performing students, and are usually related to advanced problem-solving (Cimpian et al., 2016).

Examples of Gender Differences in Development - Reasons for Differences in Mathematical Development

Girls tend to have more math anxiety and less confidence than boys do in their math abilities, despite comparable interest level (Ganley & Lubienski, 2016).
Teachers' perceptions and the teaching approaches they use may further contribute to these differences, with girls sometimes leaning towards procedural strategy use and boys relying on more novel approaches.

Examples of Gender Differences in Development- Aggression

Observation studies show physical aggression emerges around a year of age (Hay, 2005).
There are some slight gender differences in the initial appearances of aggression.
In one particular study involving toddlers, a higher proportion of boys were found to exhibit frequent physical aggression compared to girls (Baillargeon et al., 2007).
Aggression differences tend to increase as children age.

Aggression - Types

Direct aggression: Involves physical or verbal actions to harm others.
Indirect aggression: Involves strategies to damage a person's social status, such as spreading rumors or excluding a person from social groups.

Aggression - Possible Explanations

Biological reasons for difference suggest that females often have less physical strength, which may explain aggression used among females compared to males.
Other theories point towards differing social approaches used by boys and girls, with girls often using more indirect forms of aggression (Crick, 1997), due to social structures that emphasize indirect forms of interactions.
Parenting and other adult influences may also steer children towards different forms of aggression based on their gender. The way parents and others encourage and discourage aggression can create varied approaches in aggression between boys and girls.

Spatial Skills

This includes comparing, manipulating, and transforming mental pictures.
Major components of spatial skills include mental rotation, spatial perception, and spatial visualization tasks.
Boys generally demonstrate greater spatial skills/abilities than girls do. Gender differences are often more pronounced in mental rotation, which involves manipulating figures in space.

Spatial Skills - Continued

Differences in spatial skills may be attributed to differing levels of exposure and experiences, with boys tending to have more in spatially complex environments (Serbin & Connor, 1979). Spatial activities like playing games involving complex spatial relations, like ball games, have positive correlation with these skills.
Gender differences in spatial skills may also stem from differences in existing societal inequalities, differing from one country to another.

A Couple of Points to Consider

Does gender typing persist into adulthood?
Does gender typing predict gender-based behaviours among children?
How can we address gender prejudice and discrimination among children?
What are the differing results between microgenetic and cross-sectional developmental studies?.

Reading - Blackboard

Provide core and optional reading materials for student reference. Details about these readings are available on Blackboard.

Check Your Understanding

A Wooclap Quiz is available on Blackboard for students to check their understanding on Week 5.

Questions

Students can ask questions directly, post on an online spreadsheet, or book a meeting during the lecturer's office hours.

Studying That Suits You

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Description

Test your knowledge on the biological and social factors influencing gender development. This quiz covers androgen receptors, gender preferences, and theories of gender-typed behavior. Explore key concepts such as congenital adrenal hyperplasia and gender constancy.