Lecture 5 - Gender Development PDF

Learning Outcomes Explain different theories of the development of gender-typed behaviours: cognitive, biological, and biopsychosocial theories. Explain how parents, peers, and marketing can influence gender-typing in children. Describe the the gender similarity hypothesis. Discuss gender di...

Learning Outcomes Explain different theories of the development of gender-typed behaviours: cognitive, biological, and biopsychosocial theories. Explain how parents, peers, and marketing can influence gender-typing in children. Describe the the gender similarity hypothesis. Discuss gender differences in mathematical thinking, spatial skills, and aggression using key theories of gender development. Sheffield Graduate Attributes (SGA) https://students.sheffield.ac.uk/skills/sga - My Learning - Applying knowledge: - My Impact - Translating knowledge Interpersonal skills: Problem solving Communication Research & critical thinking: Working with others: Critical thinking Collaboration Ethics and sustainability: Post-lecture activities Integrity Appropriate conduct Academic skills: Academic writing Study skills Introduction & Key Terms  Note On Content The information provided in the lecture often draws on classic theories of gender which are based on gender as a dichotomy and may not reflect experiences of individuals whose perception and/or expressions of gender is not binary; such as individuals who identify as gender fluid and/or nonbinary. Hopefully, future theories and research will reflect these individuals’ experiences and perceptions of gender The absence of this information does not reflect the views of the staff but is a reflection of the research and classic theories that are available The core reading has been selected to add a voice to those who don’t identify or express themselves within the traditional concepts of male- female  Key Terms: Biological Sex Biological sex is typically assigned at birth and is determined by our chromosomes, genitalia, and hormones. Based on these characteristics, a child may be categorised as a woman (female), man (male), or intersex at birth. Important: Biological sex and gender are often connected and may be used interchangeably in different contexts by different people. However, they are not generally considered to be the same in psychology.  Key Terms: Biological Sex Woman / Female Intersex Man / Male XX, XO, XXY, XYY, XX/XY Chromosomes XX XY mosaicism External genitalia clitoris, labia, vagina female ambiguous male penis, testes / scrotal sacs seminal vesicles, ovaries, oviducts, uterus, Internal genitalia female ambiguous male bulbourethral glands, cervix, upper vagina prostate gland high estrogen and variable hormone levels and higher testosterone and Hormones progesterone, low responsiveness dihydrotestosterone testosterone Reproductive menses, ovulation ejaculation, semen absent or variable function (typically fertile) (typically fertile) Table partially reproduced from Looy & Bouma (2005).  Key Terms: Gender Gender is typically assigned at birth in line with biological sex. However, gender tends to refer to a broad social construct that takes into account psychological, behavioural, social, and cultural aspects that may change over time. An individual can be cisgender or transgender. Some type of Female Male spectrum Female Male Female Male Non- Binary category binary Gender Categorical Key Terms: Gender-typing/expression As children develop, they learn to perform behaviours associated with their gender. Gender-typing and gender expression are the processes by which adopt observable behaviours in line with our construction of gender. Typically, gender-typing is associated with societal norms of gender and can be linked to gender stereotypes. Note. Gender-typing and expression can change over time and vary across cultures. Key Terms: Gender-typed behaviours Gender-typed preferences and behaviours result from the combined influence of biological, psychological, and sociocultural processes (Leaper, 2013) - i.e., biopsychosocial model. Gender-typed = Gender identity behaviours  Activity! Why should we study how gender develops? Discuss with the person (or people) next to you. Think about what gender development could tell us about the development of behaviour. Think about why you and others may wish to know more about gender development. Introduction to Gender Development Investigating gender development may give us insight into: The roles of nature and nurture in development How parenting and socialisation can influence behaviour How children internalise what they see around them into ideas about what roles they should take How children develop concepts and the effect this has on their behaviour  Key Questions Developmental psychologists are concerned with two main questions: 1. When and why do different gendered preferences and/or behaviours emerge? 1. What factors may account for the development of gender differences?  Important Points to Remember Many researchers reject the dichotomous view of gender. Finding gender differences can sometimes contribute to stereotyping. When people see these differences as innate, it has led to justification of gender inequality and (typically) the situating of women in positions of predominantly lower status. Similarities between men and women far exceed the differences (Epstein, 1988; West & Zimmerman, 1991). With social changes in opportunity structures, constraining institutional arrangements, and attitudes, gender differences have declined over time (Connell, 1987). Implying that nurture may be more impactful than nature.  Gender as Non Binary A growing number of children and adolescents report having gender identities or expressions that differ from their birth assigned gender or social and cultural norms. ○ Non binary ○ Gender fluid Report that gender identity or gender expression not reflect traditional male-female binary. Introduction to Gender Development 1. Focus on NURTURE Three Stages of Gender Development 2. Focus on NATURE Biological accounts 3. A bit of both Social Cognitive Theory Three Stages of Gender Development Kohlberg (1966)  Cognitive Development of Gender Children develop concepts of gender from those around them through observation and practice. Kohlberg (1966) proposed that as children develop cognitively, their gender develops in three stages driven by natural maturation as they age. Kohlberg thought that when children understand gender constancy it is similar to them passing Piagetian conservation tasks.  Stage 1 1. Gender identity (2 to 3 years of age) Children begin to label themselves and others as a ‘boy’ or ‘girl’ based on external appearance. For example, a little girl might say she is a girl because she has long hair. Children do not understand the Children in this stage might think they become a girl if they difference between biological sex and wear makeup or a boy when gender or that both tend to remain they remove the makeup! stable over time.  Stage 2 2. Gender stability (4 to 5 years of age) Children now recognise that gender typically remains constant over time. However, this understanding is still based on appearance. Kohlberg (1966) theory assumes gender to be binary and therefore assumes that children will understand that boys will become men and girls will become women with age.  Stage 3 3. Gender constancy (6 to 7 years of age) Children at this stage now understand that gender identity is invariant despite changes in appearance, dress, or activity. ○ e.g., if a woman has short hair and is a builder, she will still be female Children are not expected to adopt gender- typed behaviours consistently until they reach this stage at about 6-7 years of age.  Gender Constancy Once children reach the gender constancy stage they begin to seek out same-sex playmates and engage in gender-typed behaviours and activities associated with their gender identity. Children are now considered to have gained an understanding of gender and begin to seek out same-sex role models to identify with.  Gender Constancy Why is gender constancy key to developing gendered behaviour? It does not make sense to learn about your gender and gender-typed behaviours if your gender does not remain constant. Cognitive consistency is gratifying, so individuals attempt to behave in ways that are consistent with their self-conception. For example: "I am a boy, therefore I want to do boy things, therefore the opportunity to do boy things (and to gain approval for doing them) is rewarding”. Three Stages of Gender Development Evidence for the Three Stages of Gender Development have been found cross-culturally (Munroe et al., 1984). For example, evidence has been found using samples from the USA, Belize, Kenya, Nepal, and the pacific islands of the American Samoa. Nature or nurture?  Evidence for Example - Ruble et al. (1981) Ruble et al. asked children who had high or low gender constancy to watch two adverts: One with a same-sex child playing with a gender neutral toy. One with an opposite-sex child playing with a gender neutral toy. Children were then given the chance to play with the toy in the adverts. Ruble et al. found that: Low gender constancy children played with the toy from both advertisements. High gender constancy children were much less likely to play with the toy from the advert with the opposite-sex child.  Evidence against Example - Thompson (1975) Even 2-year-olds can sort pictures of stereotypical girls’ and boys’ toys, clothing, and appliances based on their typical gender relatedness. Therefore, children's ability to classify their own and others’ gender may be all that is necessary for early gender-typing to occur. It suggests that gender constancy is not a prerequisite for gender typing development.  Evidence against Long before children have attained gender constancy, they: prefer to play with toys traditionally associated with their gender (Martin & Little, 1990); model their behaviour after same-sex models (Bussey & Bandura, 1984); reward peers for gender-appropriate behaviour (Bussey & Bandura, 1992). Gender difference in colour preferences are present by 3 years of age (Wong & Hines, 2015)! Biological Accounts of Gender Development  Key Terms: Biological Sex Woman / Female Intersex Man / Male XX, XO, XXY, XYY, XX/XY Chromosomes XX XY mosaicism External genitalia clitoris, labia, vagina female ambiguous male penis, testes / scrotal sacs Seminal vesicles, ovaries, oviducts, uterus, Internal genitalia female ambiguous male bulbourethral glands, cervix, upper vagina prostate gland high estrogen and variable hormone levels and higher testosterone and Hormones progesterone, low responsiveness dihydrotestosterone testosterone Reproductive menses, ovulation ejaculation, semen absent or variable function (typically fertile) (typically fertile) Table partially reproduced from Looy & Bouma (2005).  Hormones Biological accounts of gender developments have focused on the role of androgens. Androgens are a group of hormones that affect physical development and are present at higher levels in men than in women. Androgens are responsible for the forming of external genitalia during prenatal development and are linked to aggression. Fluctuations in androgens can influence behaviour (Collaer & Hines, 1995). For example, the body increases androgen production in response to perceived threats which can lead to increased aggression. Intersex / Hormone Component Biological accounts also look at intersex individuals and related conditions (Preves, 2003). Androgen insensitivity syndrome (AIS) occurs in people who are genetically male but their androgen receptors malfunction leading to external characteristics (e.g., genitalia) that are associated with women. Individuals with AIS are more likely to identify as female. Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) affects the adrenal glands. People who are genetically female may develop male genitalia as a result. Girls with CAH are more likely to chose physically active play and play fighting (Berenbaum & Hines, 1992).  Arguments for Biological accounts also focus on transgender children and twins and propose a neurological and/or genetic basis of gender identity and gender-typing. Transgender children prefer to engage in gender-typed behaviours that match their gender identity from very early on (Zucker & Bradley, 1995). Discrepancy between assigned gender and gender identity occur early in life and cannot generally be altered by parenting (i.e., nurture). Twins are more likely to have concordant gender identity including whether they are cis- or transgender (Burri et al., 2011). Multiple genes have been implicated in the development of gender identity in transgender individuals. Question! What arguments can you think of against biological accounts of gender-typing / gender-typed behaviour? Think about last week’s lecture. Discuss with others and put your answers in Wooclap.  Arguments against The causal link between hormones, genes, and behaviour has not been established. It is difficult to disentangle hormonal/genetic influences from social ones (Huston, 1983). Biological sex is complex and different aspects (e.g., hormones) may contribute to gender development to different extents.  Social Cognitive Theory Bussey & Bandura (1999)  Social Cognitive Theory Bussey and Bandura (1999) proposed three interacting causal factors that determine gender development. Personal factors Cognitive, motivational, and biological processes Behaviour patterns Environmental factors Engaging in gender-typed behaviours Social influences encountered in everyday life  Social Cognitive Theory Bussey & Bandura (1999) proposed that gender-typed behaviours develop in three main ways: 1. Tuition - when children are directly taught gendered behaviours. 2. Enactive experience - when children learn to guide their own behaviour by considering reactions from others. 3. Observational learning - seeing others behave and watching the consequences of their behaviour on others’ reactions.  1. Tuition Example - Grusec et al. (1996) Grusec at al. observed that: boys are more likely than girls to take out the bins, mow the lawn, and help wash the car; girls are more likely to care for younger siblings. This gender assignment of chores implies a ‘natural’ division of labour and may influence children’s interests and understanding of gender roles. Example - Crowley et al. (2001) Crowley et al. observed that parents were 3x more likely to offer explanations to boys about what they were observing than girls in a science museum.  2. Enactive Experience Gender schemas may be developed through conditioning – ‘gender appropriate behaviours’ are rewarded by others through praise and attention. Fathers’ responses to their 3- to 5-year- olds as positive (attending, giving praise) or negative (ignoring, interfering) were recorded. Fathers gave more positive responses to children when they played with a ‘gender-appropriate’ toy and were more negative when they played with a ‘gender-inappropriate’ toy. (Langlois & Downs, 1980) Why is gender-typing more rigid for boys? Overall, boys are less likely to express preferences or engage with activities that are ‘stereotypically female’ than girls. Why? Generally, parents and peers respond more negatively to boys who do ‘girl things’ than girls who do ‘boy things’. Fathers often play a big role in instilling stereotypical male behaviours in their sons. Some have suggested that this is because males traditionally have a higher status in society and so when they engage in ‘feminine’ behaviours they lose status. …Therefore, parents are less worried when girls engage in stereotypical male behaviours that involve competition or strength.  3. Observational Learning Gender related behaviours may be learnt simply through observing others (e.g., caregivers and peers). In a review of 48 studies, a positive correlation was found between parents’ gender schemas and their children’s gender attitudes and interests (Tenenbaum et al., 2002). Marketing Influences  Marketing Influences In controlled lab studies, the labelling of toys (i.e., ‘for boys’ or ‘for girls’) and the colour (blue or pink) affects what toys girls and boys play with (Weisgram et al., 2014). Gender-typed toy preferences among children are one of the largest gender differences in developmental psychology. Video Link The Gender Similarity Hypothesis  The Gender Similarity Hypothesis Hyde (2005) conducted a review of hundreds of studies looking at female-male gender differences across 128 domains, including: strength, moral reasoning, cheating behaviour, problem solving, self- esteem, leadership, and more. What did the review indicate? Many studies (30%) report effects close to 0; Almost half (48%) report small effects; So, 78% of studies report small or close to zero effects!  The Gender Similarity Hypothesis What about the small proportion (22%) of studies that found medium effects? Throwing speed and distance. Sexuality (attitudes that sex can be in an uncommitted relationship). Physical aggression. Based on this, Hyde (2005) concludes that males and females are alike on most (but not all) psychological and some non psychological variables and therefore girls and boys are more alike than they are different and that differences within Examples of Gender Differences in Development  1. Mathematical Skills Women make up a relatively small percentage of the workforce in STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, & Maths). Why? Stereotypes about maths ability is prominent among children, parents, and teachers. https://www.stemwomen.com/women-in-stem-statistics-progress-and-challenges Inspiring The Future - Redraw The Balance This powerful film from MullenLowe London provocatively captures how, early on in their education, children already define career opportunities as male and female. When asked to draw a firefighter, surgeon and a fighter pilot, 61 pictures were drawn of men and only 5 were female. It's time to #redrawthebalance. Find out how you can support the cause by visiting: inspiringthefuture.org  1. Mathematical Skills Children tend to view boys and girls as being equal in mathematical ability, but view adult men as being better at mathematics than adult women (Steele, 2003). Fathers estimated their sons' mathematical “IQ” at 110 on average, and their daughters' at 98; mothers estimated 110 for sons and 104 for daughters (Furnham et al., 2002).  1. Mathematical Skills Example - Hutchison et al. (2018) There are no differences in mathematical skills from preschool to early adolescence. Example - Cimpian et al. (2016) Gender differences in maths tend to only emerge in late adolescence. Typically, this difference is present only among higher performing students where boys tend to do better. Furthermore, this difference is only found on maths tasks that involve advanced problem solving and not on standard school assessments. This difference generally has a small effect size.  1. Mathematical Skills Why are these small differences found in later development and only on more complex tasks? Girls often show higher maths anxiety and less confidence in their ability than boys despite having a similar level of interest (Ganley & Lubienski, 2016). Tuition/Biological factors - It could be down to teacher perceptions or the fact that girls tend to use procedural strategies they have been taught; whereas boys tend to use ‘bolder, novel strategies’.  3. Aggression Observational studies have found that physical aggression against peers emerges around 1 year of age (Hay, 2005). Some small gender differences emerge during these early years: One study showed that 5% of male toddlers were frequently physically aggressive compared to 1% of female toddlers (Baillargeon et al., 2007). These gender differences tend to increase with development.  2. Aggression 1. Direct aggression - This refers to verbal and physical acts of aggression (e.g., shouting, hitting, etc). 2. Indirect aggression - This refers to relational aggressive acts by manipulating peer relationships and damaging the target's social position (e.g., spreading gossip, threatening to terminate friendship, excluding peers from friendship groups).  2. Aggression Some researchers argue that although boys enact more direct aggression than girls, girls use more indirect forms of aggression (e.g., Crick, 1997). Overall, there are small-medium gender differences in aggression. Question! Why might there be variations in the type of aggression used across the genders? Think about biological, social, and psychological explanations. Discuss with others and put your answers in Wooclap.  2. Aggression Why might there be variations in the type of aggression used across the genders? Biological explanation - females generally have lower physical strength which necessitates reliance on indirect means of aggression. Sociocognitive explanations - Girls’ peer groups are often characterised by being smaller but closer than boys’ peer groups suggesting that indirect aggression is particularly hurtful among girls because it targets these relationships. Tuition - there are differences in the degree to which parents and other adults discourage directly aggressive behaviour in girls which leads them to use more covert forms of aggression.  3. Spatial Skills Spatial skills involve comparing, manipulating, and transforming mental pictures. They involve three primary components: 1. Mental rotation - identifying a model in a different orientation. 2. Spatial perception - determining the spatial relations of objects with respect to one’s own body. 3. Spatial visualisation - being able to visualise spatially presented information.  3. Spatial Skills There are reliable differences in some spatial skills favouring males. Gender difference in favour of boys are largest for mental rotation, medium for spatial perception, and smallest for spatial visualisation tasks (Linn & Petersen, 1985). However, these differences also seem to be getting smaller with time perhaps as a function of social changes (Halpern, 1992).  3. Spatial Skills Why might there be a gender difference? Boys often get more experience interacting in spatially complex environments (Serbin & Connor, 1979). Correlational studies have shown that participating in spatial activities such as ball playing are positively correlated to children’s spatial skills. Gender differences in spatial ability are more pronounced in societies with greater gender inequality (Hoffman et al., 2011).  A couple of points to consider… Does gender-typing persist from childhood to adulthood? - i.e., do the extent to which we adopt gender-typed behaviours in childhood predict our behaviour later in life. Does gender-typing predict when children exhibit gender-based prejudice and discrimination? If yes, what could we do to reduce gender-based prejudice and discrimination early on. How closely should we look at changes in gender-typing and gendered behaviour? - i.e., do the conclusions change based on the method we use to look at development (e.g., microgenetic vs. cross-sectional studies). Possible answers to these questions can be found in the Optional Reading by Martin and Ruble (2010).  Reading – see Blackboard Core Reading: Diamond, L.M. (2020). Gender Fluties Among Children and Adolescents. Child Development Perspectives, 14(2), 110-115 https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12366 Optional Martin, C. L., & Ruble, D. N. (2010). Patterns of gender development. Annual Review of Psychology, 61, 353-381. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.093008.100511 Check your understanding Wooclap quiz You can find the link on Blackboard under Week 5.  Questions? Feel free to come and talk to me now! Or – post any questions on the online spreadsheet. Or – book a meeting in my office hours (see Blackboard contact page).