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Questions and Answers
What is the most likely reason for increased ALT activity due to anticonvulsants?
What is the most likely reason for increased ALT activity due to anticonvulsants?
Which of the following conditions may lead to an increase in ALT activity due to hepatocyte damage?
Which of the following conditions may lead to an increase in ALT activity due to hepatocyte damage?
Which animal's ALT activity is least affected by intravascular haemolysis?
Which animal's ALT activity is least affected by intravascular haemolysis?
What effect do corticosteroids have on ALT levels?
What effect do corticosteroids have on ALT levels?
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Which statement regarding AST is true?
Which statement regarding AST is true?
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What is the main reason for increased ALT associated with cholestasis?
What is the main reason for increased ALT associated with cholestasis?
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In which animal does AST have the shortest half-life?
In which animal does AST have the shortest half-life?
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What would most likely result in increased ALT activity due to muscle injury in cats?
What would most likely result in increased ALT activity due to muscle injury in cats?
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What does the presence of red color in faeces typically indicate?
What does the presence of red color in faeces typically indicate?
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Which consistency of faeces is associated with constipation?
Which consistency of faeces is associated with constipation?
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What kind of odour in faeces suggests high fat feeding or low digestion?
What kind of odour in faeces suggests high fat feeding or low digestion?
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Which of the following conditions is indicated by green faeces?
Which of the following conditions is indicated by green faeces?
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What is the recommended amount of faeces needed for a faecal culture?
What is the recommended amount of faeces needed for a faecal culture?
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What symptom is associated with steatorrhoea?
What symptom is associated with steatorrhoea?
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Which type of faeces consistency suggests a reduced absorptive surface area?
Which type of faeces consistency suggests a reduced absorptive surface area?
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What is the best practice for storing faeces if there is a delay in examination?
What is the best practice for storing faeces if there is a delay in examination?
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Where are paraproteins typically found?
Where are paraproteins typically found?
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What condition is commonly associated with increased IgM levels?
What condition is commonly associated with increased IgM levels?
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What process is used to separate proteins based on their charge and mass-induced inertia?
What process is used to separate proteins based on their charge and mass-induced inertia?
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What is a primary risk for foals, calves, and crias regarding immunity?
What is a primary risk for foals, calves, and crias regarding immunity?
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In an electrophoretogram, which protein is known to form a distinct single band?
In an electrophoretogram, which protein is known to form a distinct single band?
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When is it optimal to measure IgG for llamas to assess passive transfer?
When is it optimal to measure IgG for llamas to assess passive transfer?
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What is the minimum IgG concentration recommended for adequate passive transfer in foals?
What is the minimum IgG concentration recommended for adequate passive transfer in foals?
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Which technique provides greater resolution for negatively charged molecules than standard gel electrophoresis?
Which technique provides greater resolution for negatively charged molecules than standard gel electrophoresis?
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What serum total protein concentration correlates with an IgG concentration of 100 g/L in calves?
What serum total protein concentration correlates with an IgG concentration of 100 g/L in calves?
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How are the globulins separated in the electrophoretogram?
How are the globulins separated in the electrophoretogram?
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What IgG concentration indicates failure of passive transfer (FPT) in crias?
What IgG concentration indicates failure of passive transfer (FPT) in crias?
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Which of the following immunoglobulins may extend into the beta region of the electrophoretogram?
Which of the following immunoglobulins may extend into the beta region of the electrophoretogram?
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What is the purpose of a densitometer in protein electrophoresis?
What is the purpose of a densitometer in protein electrophoresis?
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What specific condition might complicate the assessment of serum total protein concentration in sick calves with FPT?
What specific condition might complicate the assessment of serum total protein concentration in sick calves with FPT?
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What characteristic causes immunoglobulins with more complex structures to move slower in electrophoresis?
What characteristic causes immunoglobulins with more complex structures to move slower in electrophoresis?
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What is indicated by a positive result on the faecal occult blood test?
What is indicated by a positive result on the faecal occult blood test?
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What does increased TLI concentration indicate?
What does increased TLI concentration indicate?
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What influences the predictable separation of proteins in electrophoresis?
What influences the predictable separation of proteins in electrophoresis?
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Which component is predominantly detected in healthy animals' TLI tests?
Which component is predominantly detected in healthy animals' TLI tests?
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How many faecal occult blood tests should be conducted for a definitive diagnosis?
How many faecal occult blood tests should be conducted for a definitive diagnosis?
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What is one factor that increases TLI concentration after food intake?
What is one factor that increases TLI concentration after food intake?
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What describes the specificity of the faecal occult blood test for abomasal ulceration?
What describes the specificity of the faecal occult blood test for abomasal ulceration?
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What is the preferred condition for collecting a serum sample for TLI measurement?
What is the preferred condition for collecting a serum sample for TLI measurement?
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What does low renal clearance of TLI suggest?
What does low renal clearance of TLI suggest?
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Which condition is most likely to cause inadequate absorption of glucose in the intestine?
Which condition is most likely to cause inadequate absorption of glucose in the intestine?
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What is the primary reason for unexpectedly high peak glucose concentrations?
What is the primary reason for unexpectedly high peak glucose concentrations?
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Which electrolyte is typically found in higher concentrations inside cells (ICF)?
Which electrolyte is typically found in higher concentrations inside cells (ICF)?
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Which of the following processes can lead to increased retention of electrolytes in the body?
Which of the following processes can lead to increased retention of electrolytes in the body?
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Which statement is true regarding sodium and chloride concentrations in the extracellular fluid (ECF)?
Which statement is true regarding sodium and chloride concentrations in the extracellular fluid (ECF)?
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Why might serum electrolyte concentrations not accurately reflect the body balance of those electrolytes?
Why might serum electrolyte concentrations not accurately reflect the body balance of those electrolytes?
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Which of the following is a common cause for increased loss of electrolytes from the body?
Which of the following is a common cause for increased loss of electrolytes from the body?
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Which electrolyte is most commonly associated with increased levels during in vitro lysis of blood cells?
Which electrolyte is most commonly associated with increased levels during in vitro lysis of blood cells?
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Study Notes
Clinical Biochemistry - Clinical Pathology 410
- This is a course on clinical biochemistry within the Faculty of Veterinary Science at the University of Pretoria.
- The recommended textbooks for the course are: Thrall, Weiser, Allison & Campbell. Veterinary Hematology and Clinical Chemistry (2nd Ed). Wiley-Blackwell, 2012; Stockham & Scott. Fundamentals of Veterinary Clinical Pathology (2nd Ed). Blackwell Publishing, 2008; Latimer, Duncan & Prasse's Veterinary Laboratory Medicine - Clinical Pathology (5th Ed). Wiley-Blackwell, 2011.
- Copies of these books are available in the Clinical Pathology reserved study collection in the library.
Clinical Enzymology
- Enzymes are found in different organs, tissues, or cells.
- Certain enzymes are specific to particular tissues and are useful for diagnostic purposes, helping to identify the site of tissue injury or increased enzyme production.
- Enzyme activity is directly proportional to enzyme concentration.
- Enzyme activity is reported in units per liter (U/L).
- Important concepts for interpreting serum enzyme assay results include the distinction between leakage and induced enzymes, the duration of enzyme activity (biological half-life), tissue specificity, and the correct handling/ storage of serum samples.
- Leakage enzymes are released when cell injury alters cell membranes, while induced enzymes result from increased production of an enzyme by cells that normally produce it in smaller quantities.
Leakage vs. Induced Enzymes
- Leakage enzymes are released from damaged cells, while induced enzymes are produced in higher amounts in response to a stimulus.
- Serum enzyme activity reflects the speed at which a substrate is consumed or a product is formed.
Enzyme Half-Life
- The amount of time an enzyme remains active in the serum.
- The half-life varies depending on the enzyme and its source (tissue).
- Knowing an enzyme's half-life helps determine the timing of tissue damage.
Tissue Specificity
- An enzyme's presence and concentration in specific tissues.
- This is important for correctly identifying the source of enzyme leakage into the serum.
Serum Handling and Storage
- Proper handling and storage of serum samples are crucial to ensure accurate enzyme assay results.
- The handling and storage procedures vary from species to species and for each particular enzyme.
Liver and Hepatic Injury (ALT)
- ALT (Alanine Aminotransferase): Primarily located in the cytoplasm of hepatocytes.
- Serum ALT activity is noticeably high in cases of hepatocellular injury or disease.
- The half-life is 2-3 days in dogs and approx 3-4 hours in cats.
- Potential interfering factors include in-vitro or intravascular haemolysis
- Increased serum activity of ALT is strongly indicative of hepatocellular injury. Drugs, especially corticosteroids are potential factors for increased ALT activity.
Aspartate Aminotransferase (AST)
- AST is found in the cytoplasm and mitochondria of various tissues (especially liver and muscle).
- Serum AST activity is a less sensitive marker of muscle injury compared to CK.
- AST is used to ascertain the timing of muscle injury.
- Serum AST activity will increase gradually and plateau for many hours/days in dogs or horses. AST is a sensitive indicator of hepatic injury.
Other Enzymes (e.g., GLDH)
- GLDH is usually used for hepatic injury in larger animals (birds, reptiles, etc)
- GLDH is mitochondrial-enzyme that causes glutamate to oxoglutarate
Alkaline Phosphatase (ALP)
- ALP is a non-specific enzyme and is present in liver, bone, kidney, intestine etc.
- ALP is used as a sensitive indicator for cholestasis in the dog.
- This test is species specific.
Gamma Glutamyl Transferase (GGT)
- GGT is primarily membrane bound and found in the liver, pancreas etc.
- GGT is used specifically for increased pressure in the biliary system.
- GGT activity is increased in dogs with bile duct obstruction
- GGT levels increase can precede increases in ALP when there is liver disease in the cat.
Amylase and Lipase
- Amylase & Lipase are used to evaluate diseases of the pancreas or intestinal diseases, respectively.
Trypsin-like immunoreactivity (TLI)
- TLI assays use species-specific antibodies and is useful in evaluating pancreatic disease.
- TLI is useful in dogs and cats to evaluate pancreatitis.
Creatine Kinase (CK)
- CK is an enzyme found in the cytoplasm of muscle cells.
- CK levels rise rapidly due to muscle damage (e.g. exercise, injury etc).
- CK levels decrease within 24-48 hours in dogs post-injury.
- Measurements of CK and AST can indicate when muscle injury occurred and is ongoing.
Lactate Dehydrogenase (LDH)
- LDH is a non-specific enzyme and is found in several tissues.
- Increased serum LDH is indicative of muscle injury or disease.
- Increases after acute injury.
Plasma Proteins
- Plasma proteins are typically categorized into albumin and globulins.
- Albumin is the most abundant plasma protein and is primarily produced by the liver
- Globulins include immunoglobulins (antibodies), complement proteins, clotting factors, and other carrier proteins.
- The albumin-globulin (A/G) ratio is used in diagnostics to indicate potential disease states, especially when there are abnormal levels.
- Protein electrophoresis helps in assessing a patient's protein fractions, especially the globulins.
Urine Tests
- Urine specific gravity (SG) can indicate hydration status and kidney function
- Tubular function is assessed by analyzing different urine constituents which usually include proteins, glucose, ketones, and bilirubin.
- Abnormal levels of these constituents can reveal different kidney and/or extrarenal disorders.
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Description
Explore the essential concepts of Clinical Biochemistry in the context of Veterinary Science. This quiz examines various aspects of clinical pathology, including enzyme functions and diagnostic significance. Ideal for students in veterinary clinical chemistry courses.
