Learning & Motivation

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What is the main difference between an unconditioned response (UR) and a conditioned response (CR)?

UR does not require prior learning, while CR is learned through conditioning. (correct)

UR is learned, while CR is a natural reaction.

UR is associated with negative experiences, while CR is associated with positive experiences.

UR can occur without a stimulus, while CR always needs a stimulus.

During second-order conditioning, what is the role of the light (CS2) after conditioning has taken place?

It acts only as a neutral stimulus without any response.

It serves as an unconditioned stimulus that elicits a response.

It replaces the bell completely in eliciting a response.

It becomes a conditioned stimulus that can elicit the conditioned response. (correct)

What characterizes the 'extinction' process in classical conditioning?

It completely eliminates the conditioned response from memory.

It involves repeated presentation of the unconditioned stimulus alone.

It leads to the later spontaneous recovery of the conditioned response. (correct)

It establishes a new conditioned response without prior trials.

Which of the following statements best describes 'Stimulus Substitution' in classical conditioning?

The conditioned stimulus is paired with the unconditioned stimulus to become associated. Signup and view all the answers

In the context of Pavlov's experiments, what would be an example of an appetitive conditioning scenario?

A dog salivates in response to a bell that signals food is coming. Signup and view all the answers

What happens to the conditioned response after the extinction phase in classical conditioning?

It remains intact but may not be immediately observable. Signup and view all the answers

Which of these terms refers to a learned response that occurs when a conditioned stimulus is presented alone after conditioning?

Extinction Signup and view all the answers

How can advertising utilize principles of classical conditioning?

By associating positive emotions with products through repeated exposure. Signup and view all the answers

What does the Law of Effect state about behavior?

Past consequences of behavior influence future actions. Signup and view all the answers

What was a key attribute of Thorndike's puzzle box experiment?

Trial and error leading to progressive improvement. Signup and view all the answers

What does behavior shaping involve in instrumental conditioning?

Gradually building towards a target behavior through smaller steps. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes positive reinforcement?

Providing a favorable consequence to increase desired behavior. Signup and view all the answers

What was a primary view of radical behaviorism?

Behavior can be fully explained by stimuli-response relationships. Signup and view all the answers

Which statement best describes the purpose of a discriminative stimulus in behavior control?

It signals when a specific behavior will result in a reinforcement. Signup and view all the answers

Which two factors heavily influence generalization and discrimination according to stimulus control theory?

Similarity of the new stimulus to learned stimuli and the effectiveness of the stimulus. Signup and view all the answers

In Skinner's tripartite contingency, which component represents what happens immediately after a behavior is displayed?

Consequence Signup and view all the answers

How does generalization in humans differ compared to other organisms as suggested by Razran's findings?

Human responses primarily relate to semantic similarities rather than just phonological. Signup and view all the answers

What role does performance-related similarity play in stimulus discrimination?

It determines how similar a new stimulus is to previously learned stimuli in influencing responses. Signup and view all the answers

What is the term used for understanding a goal without using the same method as others to achieve it?

Emulation Signup and view all the answers

What kind of learning involves acquiring behaviors through the observation of others and their consequences?

Observational Conditioning Signup and view all the answers

Which term describes the impact of group behavior on individual learning motivation?

Social Facilitation Signup and view all the answers

According to Bandura and colleagues, what is a key aspect of social modeling?

It emphasizes the role of reinforcement for the observer. Signup and view all the answers

What does the concept of biological preparedness refer to in the context of learning?

A predisposition to learn certain fears faster. Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes social learning from social facilitation?

Social learning requires direct observation. Signup and view all the answers

In observational learning, which component involves a cognitive understanding of the model's actions?

Cognitive Modeling Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best explains goal enhancement in social learning?

Access to goals increases motivation. Signup and view all the answers

Which factor is NOT a component affecting conditioning?

The genetic predisposition of the organism Signup and view all the answers

Enduring changes in behavior, as a result of learning, often reflect which of the following?

Long-term alterations based on repeated experiences Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements is true regarding habituation?

It is a decrease in response resulting from consistent, safe stimuli. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT an example of what learning is distinguished from?

Conditioned responses Signup and view all the answers

What defines the relationship between the unconditioned stimulus (US) and the conditioned stimulus (CS) in terms of contingency?

The US must consistently follow the CS for learning to occur. Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes innate motivation as opposed to psychological goal/value-driven motivation?

It is universally present across all individuals in a species. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes supernormal stimuli?

Exaggerated stimuli that provoke stronger behavioral tendencies. Signup and view all the answers

What is a potential problem with evolutionary explanations of behavior?

They can lead to circular reasoning that lacks empirical evidence. Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'devaluation test' refer to in the context of motivation and habits?

A test to determine if a behavior is habitual or goal-directed. Signup and view all the answers

What does incentive value represent in relation to behavior?

The degree to which rewards attract behavior based on conditioning. Signup and view all the answers

How does delay reward discounting influence decision-making?

It causes the value of rewards to decrease as the wait time increases. Signup and view all the answers

In what way do learned behaviors resemble instinctive behaviors?

Learned behaviors can occur without much thought, similar to instincts. Signup and view all the answers

What impacts the fluctuation of an individual's incentive value for a reward?

Biological states and the circumstances of the reward. Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Classical Conditioning

Pavlov's Discovery: Observed dogs salivating before food arrived, leading to the concept of classical conditioning.
Key Terms:
- US (Unconditioned Stimulus): Naturally elicits a response (e.g., food).
- UR (Unconditioned Response): The natural response to the US (e.g., salivation).
- CS (Conditioned Stimulus): Previously neutral stimulus that becomes associated with the US (e.g., bell).
- CR (Conditioned Response): Learned response to the CS (e.g., salivation to the bell).
Bell-Ringing Experiment:
- Dogs learned to associate the bell (CS) with food (US), resulting in salivation (CR) to the bell alone.

Psychic Reflex

Pavlov's term for a learned response, now referred to as a conditioned response or conditioning.
Stimulus Substitution: Pavlov's theory that the CS substitutes the US in eliciting the response.

Second Order Conditioning

Phase 1: The original conditioning occurs (CS1 + US).
Phase 2: A new CS (CS2) is paired with the previous CS (CS1) without the US.
Test: The CS2 elicits the conditioned response even though it was never directly paired with the US.

Examples of Classical Conditioning

Appetitive Conditioning: Learning to associate a stimulus with a positive outcome (e.g., food preferences).
Aversive Conditioning: Learning to associate a stimulus with a negative outcome (e.g., conditioned fear).

Conditioning in Advertising

Advertisements use classical conditioning to associate a brand or product with positive stimuli (e.g., celebrities).

Acquisition and Extinction

Acquisition: Repeated pairing of the CS with the US leads to the development of the CR.
Extinction: Presentation of the CS alone without the US leads to a gradual decrease in the CR.
Renewal: The reappearance of the CR after a period of extinction.

Important Notes

Classical conditioning is primarily focused on automatic and reflexive behaviors.
It provides a fundamental framework for understanding learning about the environment.

Edward Thorndike and Animal Intelligence

Thorndike questioned the prevailing ideas about animal intelligence, which he believed lacked scientific rigor.
He was interested in whether animals exhibited insight, a sudden understanding of a situation.
His cat in a puzzle box experiment demonstrated trial and error learning, as cats gradually learned to escape faster after repeated trials.

Law of Effect

Thorndike's Law of Effect (1911) stated that the consequences of an action strongly influence its repetition.

Thorndike's Legacy: Rise of Behaviorism

Thorndike's research paved the way for a new era of scientific investigation into behavior change.
It led to the emergence of (radical) behaviorism, which focused solely on observable relationships between stimuli, responses, and consequences.

Key Figures in Radical Behaviorism

B.F. Skinner (1904-1990)
John B. Watson (1878-1958)

Reinforcers: Shaping Behavior

Reinforcers are crucial to instrumental conditioning, as they influence behavior.
Examples include money, clicker training for dogs, and praise.
Behavior shaping involves gradually shaping a target behavior through smaller steps.
It relies on reinforcing closer approximations of the desired behavior while becoming more stringent with rewards as the behavior approaches the target.

Response-Consequence Contingencies

Positive Reinforcement: Increases behavior by introducing a positive consequence.
- Example: Receiving a treat after performing a trick.
Positive Punishment: Decreases behavior by introducing a negative consequence.
- Example: Receiving a scolding for misbehaving.
Negative Punishment: Decreases behavior by removing a positive consequence.
- Example: Losing TV privileges for breaking a rule.
Negative Reinforcement: Increases behavior by removing a negative consequence.
- Escape: Ending an unpleasant situation by performing a behavior.
  - Example: Taking an aspirin to stop a headache.
- Avoidance: Performing a behavior to prevent an unpleasant situation.
  - Example: Wearing a raincoat to avoid getting wet in the rain.

Schedules of Reinforcement

Skinner believed the way reinforcement is delivered is more important than the amount itself.
Different schedules of reinforcement can influence the frequency and persistence of behaviors.

Stimulus Control

Thorndike's law of effect suggests that satisfying outcomes strengthen the connection between a stimulus and a response.
Stimuli/context (S) precedes a response (R) that leads to a satisfying outcome.
Behaviors are controlled by stimuli they are associated with.
Discriminative Stimulus (Sd) signals that a specific action will produce a consequence or outcome.

Skinner's Tripartite Contingency (ABC)

Antecedent (Sd): Stimulus that controls behavior.
Behavior (R): The response that is being reinforced or extinguished.
Consequence (Sr/Rff): Immediate outcome of the behavior.

Stimulus Control Theory

Decisions and actions are controlled by learned S-R associations.
Every encounter with a stimulus or event is unique.

Generalization and Discrimination

Generalization: Behavior transfers to a new stimulus.
Discrimination: Behavior does not transfer to a new stimulus.

Factors Influencing Stimulus Control

Learnedly related factors: Effectiveness of learning about the stimulus.
Performance-related factors: Similarity or difference between the stimulus and previously learned stimuli.

Discriminative Learning

Can be learned through training with different schedules of reinforcement.
Example: High vs. low pitched tones: Both generalization and discrimination occur during training.

Generalization in Humans

Razran (1939) found that words associated with salivation also elicited salivation for phonologically and semantically similar words.
Semantic similarity (meaning) is more influential than phonological similarity (sound).

Learning can occur through direct experience (classical and instrumental conditioning)
Classical and instrumental conditioning involves learning from direct experience.
The theory that all behavior results from conditioning and reinforcement was proposed by Skinner and Watson.
Behavior can also be learned through observation (observational conditioning).
Observational conditioning suggests that behavior can act as an unconditioned stimulus (US) that supports classical conditioning.
Cook & Mineka (1990) discovered that we have a biological preparedness to learn fear quicker than other stimuli.
Learning can occur from both observing others perform an action and observing the consequences of others performing an action (R-RFA).

Observational Instrumental Learning

Emulation involves understanding there is a goal but not using the same method to reach access to the goal.
Imitation involves copying behavior with reference to a goal.

Social facilitation involves learning from experiencing living in a social group or hierarchy.
Social facilitation examples include goal enhancement, stimulus enhancement, and increased motivation to act or explore.
Goal enhancement: Access to consequences facilitates trial and error learning.
Stimulus enhancement: Follow others in a group and being more likely to approach the same places.
Increased Motivation to Act/Explore: Try new things in the company of friends and parents.

Social facilitation does not involve direct observation.
Learning is indirect.
Behavior is changing via increased access to the goal or stimulus.
Motivation to act by following or being near others.

Social modeling is copying the behavioural style of others.
Bandura, Ross, and Ross (1961) discovered that children will not only imitate an adult's specific behavior but also model general styles of behavior.
Social modeling suggests a cognitive aspect of social learning: understanding the actions of others/modellers.
Modellers use this information in situations where it is useful.
Information is not always immediately used, it can be delayed.
Modelling is dependent on reinforcement/punishment of the model.
Modelling can occur through social networks as well (not just in person).

Learning Research Goals

Identify learning principles that apply to many different situations
Predict and modify behavior

Factors Affecting Conditioning

Frequency
- The number of times events are paired together influences conditioning
Intensity
- The strength of the unconditioned stimulus (US) and conditioned stimulus (CS) affects learning
Contiguity (Timing)
- The closer in time the US and CS are, the stronger the conditioning
Contingency
- The statistical relationship between events is crucial
- Includes the probability of the US given the CS and the probability of the US occurring on its own

Learning Defined

A lasting change in an organism resulting from experience that leads to behavioral changes
Enduring changes are relatively stable and affected by experiences like previous trials, practice, and observation

Learning vs. Performance

Learning influences behavior but is not always reflected in behavior
Changes in behavior may not always be due to learning
The absence of behavior doesn't always mean learning hasn't occurred

Performance Factors

Performance depends on:
- Learning
- Motivation
- Opportunity
- Sensory and motor abilities

What Learning Is Not

Reflexes: Innate, automatic responses to stimuli
Instincts: More complex, genetically programmed behaviors
Maturation: Physical changes due to growth and development
Fatigue: Temporary decrease in performance due to exhaustion

Basic Forms of Learning

Habituation: Decreased response to a repeated stimulus
Not fatigue or sensory adaptation
Sensitization: Increased response to a repeated stimulus
- Lowered threshold for eliciting a response
Habituation helps ignore safe stimuli, focusing on important information
Sensitization enhances awareness of potentially harmful stimuli

Motivation

Motivation is the driving force behind a person’s choices and actions.
It can be innate, driven by biological needs and instincts, or learned, driven by individual goals and values.

Hebb's Research

Motivation provides the power to initiate and sustain action.
The source of this power, whether innate or learned, dictates the direction of an individual’s actions.

Forms of Motivation

Innate (Species-Specific): Universal behavior triggered by specific stimuli across all members of a species. Often regulated by a biological state.
Goal/Value-Driven (Psychological): Motivations based on individual goals and values.

Supernormal Stimuli

Exaggerated versions of natural stimuli, triggering a stronger response than the original stimulus.
Despite their exaggerated nature, they are often preferred over natural stimuli.
Example: A bird may prefer to sit on a giant, fake egg instead of its own.

Studying Human Instincts

Distinguishing instinctive behavior from learned behavior can be challenging.
Considerations include:
- Biological Basis: Identifying genetic or neurochemical factors that underpin the behavior.
- Cross-Species Similarity: Examining if the behavior exists in other species.
- Cross-Cultural Similarity: Observing if the behavior is universal across diverse cultures.
- Twin Studies: Comparing the behavior of identical twins.
- Developmental Studies: Tracking the emergence of the behavior throughout childhood.

Criticisms of Evolutionary Explanations of Behavior

Circular Reasoning: Instinctual behavior is often explained by the presence of an instinct, creating a circular argument.
Proliferation: The tendency to overuse "instinct" as an explanation for diverse behaviors.

Habits

Repeated behaviors become habitual, often without conscious thought.
Habits are learned, but appear instinctive due to automaticity.

The Devaluation Test

Used to determine if a behavior is habitual or goal-directed.
Involves changing the value of the reward associated with the behavior.
A habitual behavior will continue even when the reward is devalued, while a goal-directed behavior will diminish.

Goals

Long-term motivations that guide behavior.
Require an understanding of the value of rewards and incentives.
Goals often rely on simple motivations.

Incentive Value

The attractiveness of a reward, influencing an individual’s motivation to pursue it.
Rewarding experiences can lead to associating certain behaviors with positive incentives.
Incentive value is a subjective measure, changing based on biological state and individual experiences.

Delay Reward Discounting

The tendency to devalue rewards as the time to receive them increases.
Associated with impulsivity and addictive behaviors.

Liking vs. Wanting

Liking: The subjective experience of pleasure associated with a reward (hedonic value).
Wanting: The desire or eagerness for a reward (incentive value).
Both are important for goal-directed behavior, but wanting can drive pursuit even in the absence of liking.

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