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What is a fixed-ratio schedule?
Why is a variable-ratio schedule particularly hard to extinguish?
What is a fixed-interval schedule exemplified by?
What is a potential negative effect of punishment?
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What did Skinner's critics argue regarding his theories?
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What defines latent learning?
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What characterizes intrinsic motivation?
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What is an effect of using punishment in behavioral modification?
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What is the initial stage in classical conditioning called?
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For acquisition to occur, when should the conditioned stimulus typically be presented in relation to the unconditioned stimulus?
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What happens to the conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus does not follow the conditioned stimulus?
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What is the term for the unexpected recovery of an extinguished conditioned response after a rest period?
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What is the tendency to respond similarly to stimuli that resemble the conditioned stimulus called?
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What does stimulus discrimination allow an organism to do?
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What did early behaviorists underestimate about animal learning?
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According to later behaviorists, what constrains learning in animals?
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What is the definition of learning in psychology?
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What is classical conditioning primarily associated with?
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In Pavlov’s experiments, what does the unconditioned stimulus (US) refer to?
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Which of the following best describes operant conditioning?
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What philosophical principle suggested that our minds naturally connect events that occur in sequence?
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What role did Ivan Pavlov play in the development of classical conditioning?
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Which type of learning involves learning to associate one stimulus with another?
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What does 'response-consequence learning' involve?
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What did Garcia demonstrate regarding the duration between the conditioned stimulus (CS) and unconditioned stimulus (US)?
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What type of behavior does classical conditioning primarily involve?
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How did Watson utilize classical conditioning in advertising?
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What does the law of effect state as proposed by Thorndike?
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Which of the following accurately describes operant conditioning?
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Which statement best reflects Pavlov's legacy in psychology?
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Which of the following is not an application of classical conditioning?
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What device did Skinner develop to study operant conditioning?
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What best defines extrinsic motivation?
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What did Breland and Breland (1961) demonstrate regarding biological predispositions in animals?
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How did Skinner's view of behavior differ from his critics?
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What principle do reinforcement methods in education typically aim to achieve?
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Which of the following describes how operant conditioning can be applied in a workplace?
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What is a likely outcome of reinforcing good behavior in children?
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What is a primary characteristic of learning by observation in higher animals?
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What function do mirror neurons serve during observational learning?
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Study Notes
Learning
- Learning is a permanent change in behavior due to experience.
- Learning is more flexible than genetically-programmed behaviors.
- Our minds associate events that occur in sequence.
- Aristotle suggested the law of association 2000 years ago.
- Locke and Hume reiterated the law of association 200 years ago.
Stimulus-Stimulus Learning
- This is learning to associate one stimulus with another.
Response-Consequence Learning
- This is learning to associate a behavior with a consequence.
Classical Conditioning
- Ivan Pavlov elucidated classical conditioning through his experiments.
- Pavlov's work provided the foundation for later behaviorists like John Watson and B.F. Skinner.
Pavlov's Experiments
- Food (Unconditioned Stimulus, US) produces salivation (Unconditioned Response, UR).
- A tone (neutral stimulus) initially does not produce salivation.
- During conditioning, the neutral stimulus (tone) and the US (food) are paired, resulting in salivation (UR).
- After conditioning, the neutral stimulus (now Conditioned Stimulus, CS) elicits salivation (now Conditioned Response, CR).
Acquisition
- The initial stage of classical conditioning where an association between a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus takes place.
- For conditioning to occur, the neutral stimulus must come before the unconditioned stimulus.
- The time between the two stimuli should be about half a second.
Extinction
- When the US (food) does not follow the CS (tone), the CR (salivation) decreases and eventually extinguishes.
Spontaneous Recovery
- After a rest period, an extinguished CR (salivation) spontaneously recovers.
- If the CS (tone) persists alone, the CR becomes extinct again.
Stimulus Generalization
- This is the tendency to respond to stimuli similar to the CS.
- Pavlov conditioned a dog's salivation (CR) by using miniature vibrators (CS) on the thigh.
- Salivation dropped when he stimulated other parts of the dog's body.
Stimulus Discrimination
- This is the learned ability to distinguish between the CS and other stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus.
Extending Pavlov's Understanding
- Pavlov and Watson considered consciousness unfit for scientific study of psychology.
- They underestimated the importance of cognitive processes and biological constraints.
Cognitive Processes
- Early behaviorists believed learned behaviors of various animals could be reduced to mindless mechanisms.
- Later behaviorists suggested that animals learn the predictability of a stimulus, meaning they learn expectancy or awareness of a stimulus.
Biological Predispositions
- Pavlov and Watson believed that laws of learning were similar for all animals, suggesting no difference in learning between a pigeon and a person.
- Later behaviorists suggested that learning is constrained by an animal's biology.
John Garcia
- Garcia showed that the duration between the CS and the US can be long (hours) but still result in conditioning.
- A biologically adaptive CS (taste) led to conditioning, unlike others (light or sound).
Pavlov's Legacy
- Pavlov's greatest contribution to psychology was isolating elementary behaviors from more complex ones through objective scientific procedures.
Applications of Classical Conditioning
- John Watson used classical conditioning to develop advertising campaigns.
- Alcoholics can be conditioned aversively by reversing positive associations with alcohol.
- Through classical conditioning, a drug (plus its taste) that affects the immune response may cause the taste of the drug to invoke the immune response.
Operant & Classical Conditioning
- Classical conditioning forms associations between stimuli (CS and US).
- Operant conditioning forms an association between behaviors and the resulting events.
Operant & Classical Conditioning
- Classical conditioning involves respondent behavior, an automatic response to a specific stimulus.
- Operant conditioning involves operant behavior, behavior that operates on the environment, producing rewards or punishments.
Skinner's Experiments
- Skinner's experiments extended Thorndike's thinking, especially his law of effect, which states that rewarded behavior is likely to occur again.
Operant Chamber
- Skinner developed the Operant chamber (Skinner Box) to study operant conditioning.
Schedules of Reinforcement
- Continuous reinforcement: Every correct response is reinforced, but extinction occurs quickly.
- Partial reinforcement: Rewards only part of the time, which yields greater resistance to extinction.
- Fixed-ratio schedule: Reinforces only after a specified number of responses (e.g., piecework pay).
- Variable-ratio schedule: Reinforces after an unpredictable number of responses (e.g., gambling).
- Fixed-interval schedule: Reinforces after specified time elapsed (e.g., preparing for an exam only when it's close).
- Variable-interval schedule: Reinforces at unpredictable time intervals (e.g., pop quizzes).
Punishment
- An aversive event that decreases the behavior it follows.
- Punishment can have several negative effects including causing unwanted fears, conveying no information to the organism, justifying pain to others, causing unwanted behavior to reappear, causing aggression, and causing other unwanted behaviors to emerge.
Extending Skinner's Understanding
- Skinner believed in inner thought processes and biological underpinnings but was criticized for discounting them.
Cognition & Operant Conditioning
- Evidence of cognitive processes during operant learning comes from rats navigating a maze without an obvious reward.
- Rats seem to develop cognitive maps, mental representations, of the maze layout.
Latent Learning
- Cognitive maps are based on latent learning, which becomes apparent when an incentive is given.
Motivation
- Intrinsic motivation: The desire to perform a behavior for its own sake.
- Extrinsic motivation: The desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishments.
Biological Predisposition
- Biological constraints predispose organisms to learn associations that are naturally adaptive.
- Breland and Breland showed that animals drift towards their biologically predisposed instinctive behaviors.
Skinner's Legacy
- Skinner argued that behaviors were shaped by external influences instead of thoughts and feelings.
- Critics argue that Skinner dehumanized people by neglecting their free will.
Applications of Operant Conditioning
- Skinner introduced the concept of teaching machines that shape learning in small steps and provide reinforcements for correct answers.
- Reinforcement principles can enhance athletic performance.
- Reinforcers affect productivity.
- In children, reinforcing good behavior increases its occurrence and ignoring unwanted behavior decreases its occurrence.
Operant vs. Classical Conditioning
- Classical conditioning: Focuses on associating stimuli, not behaviors.
- Operant conditioning: Focuses on associating behaviors with consequences.
Learning by Observation
- Higher animals, especially humans, learn by observing and imitating others.
Mirror Neurons
- Mirror neurons fire both when performing an action and when observing someone else perform that action. These neurons play a role in observational learning.
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Description
Explore the fundamental concepts of learning, including stimulus-stimulus and response-consequence learning. Delve into classical conditioning, highlighting Pavlov's experiments and the significance of the law of association. Test your understanding of how behaviors can change due to experiences and associations.
