أسس التعلم والتكييف

Learning & Conditioning

• Learning is a lasting change in behavior originating from experience.
• Classical conditioning: A learning process where a previously neutral stimulus becomes associated with another stimulus.

Classical Conditioning

• Learning process linking a previously neutral stimulus to another stimulus through frequent pairings.
• Pavlov's experiments (1890s):
  • Unconditioned stimulus (US): Something that naturally triggers a response (e.g., food).
  • Unconditioned response (UR): The natural response to the US (e.g., salivation).
  • Neutral stimulus (NS): A stimulus that initially doesn't trigger a response (e.g., a bell).
  • Conditioned stimulus (CS): Formerly a neutral stimulus, after repeated pairings with the US, now triggers a response (e.g., the bell).
  • Conditioned response (CR): The learned response to the CS (e.g., salivation to the bell).

Extinction

• The decrease in the conditioned response (CR) when the conditioned stimulus (CS) is presented without the unconditioned stimulus (US).

Stimulus Generalization

• The tendency for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus (CS) to elicit a conditioned response (CR).

Stimulus Discrimination

• The ability to differentiate between the conditioned stimulus (CS) and similar stimuli that do not predict the unconditioned stimulus (US).

Higher-Order Conditioning

• Conditioning a response to a new stimulus that has been associated with a previously conditioned stimulus.

Operant/Instrumental Conditioning

• Learning through the consequences of actions; the relationship between responses and outcomes.
• Thorndike's law of effect: Behaviors followed by favorable outcomes are strengthened; those followed by unfavorable outcomes are weakened.
• Skinner's experiments:
  • Put hungry animals in boxes with levers or bars for food; by pressing the bar they receive food.
  • Acquisition & extinction: Repeated pressing of the bar elicits frequent food release; stopping food release produces extinction of the response. This resembles classical conditioning.

Reinforcement

• Any consequence that strengthens a behavior. -Positive reinforcement: Adding a pleasant stimulus to increase or maintain a behavior. -Negative reinforcement: Removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase or maintain a behavior.

Punishment

• Any consequence that weakens a behavior. -Positive punishment: Adding an unpleasant stimulus to decrease a behavior. -Negative punishment: Removing a pleasant stimulus to decrease a behavior.