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Questions and Answers
What primarily differentiates an epidemic from a pandemic?
Which structure in the cell is responsible for regulating substance movement?
During which phase does a cell actually duplicate its DNA?
What is the main function of cell differentiation?
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Which phase of the cell cycle is characterized by the cell's everyday activities?
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What is the ultimate result of mitosis in the cell cycle?
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What is the primary result of cellular proliferation?
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How do stem cells contribute to cell differentiation?
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What is the primary goal of chemotherapy in treating cancer?
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Which phase of the cell cycle is characterized by cell growth and preparation for DNA replication?
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What is the significance of debulking a tumor before chemotherapy?
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Which type of cell is capable of dividing under stress or injury conditions?
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Which category of antineoplastic agents interrupts the S-phase of the cell cycle?
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Why are non-cycle specific drugs like alkylating agents effective at any stage of the cell cycle?
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What type of tissue is specialized for contraction and movement?
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Which type of cells are considered permanent and do not have regenerative capability?
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What is the focus of palliative chemotherapy?
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In what way do chemotherapeutic drugs exhibit reduced effectiveness?
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Which term describes the increase in cell size due to increased demand?
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What is cellular adaptation primarily focused on maintaining?
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What stage follows the S-phase in the cell cycle?
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What is a consequence of atrophy in cells?
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When do adaptive responses in cells generally cease?
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Which of the following is NOT a basic type of tissue?
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Which side effect is specifically associated with radiation treatment?
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What is a common risk associated with chemotherapy?
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What does 'cross-resistance' refer to in cancer treatment?
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Which precaution is NOT recommended for handling cytotoxic drugs?
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What should be done with cytotoxic waste after drug administration?
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Which of the following is NOT a potential side effect of chemotherapy?
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Which is a mechanism by which cancer cells develop resistance to chemotherapy?
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What is the appropriate action after handling cytotoxic drugs?
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What is a potential long-term effect of chemotherapy on children?
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Which of the following may be a concern for children who receive radiation therapy?
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What should be emphasized by nurses when dealing with children undergoing cancer treatment?
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What is a possible psychological effect that cancer survivors may face?
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Which outcome is related to head and neck radiation?
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In terms of cancer screening, which group of adults benefits most from being screened?
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What is a potential long-term effect of chemotherapy related to vision?
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What aspect should parents focus on when making decisions about their child's cancer treatment?
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Study Notes
Epidemics vs. Pandemics
- Epidemic: A sudden increase in the number of cases of a disease in a specific region or population.
- Causes: New pathogen strains, environmental changes, or inadequate vaccination coverage.
- Pandemic: A disease that has spread across countries or continents, affecting a large global population.
- Key characteristics: Often involves a new pathogen that most people have little immunity against.
Cell Structure & Function
- The cell is the smallest functional living unit, with over 30 trillion cells in the human body.
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Three main parts:
- Cell membrane: Encloses the cell and regulates the movement of substances in and out.
- Nucleus: Houses the majority of the cell's DNA (genetic material).
- Cytoplasm: A gel-like fluid inside the cell containing various cell components with specific functions, excluding the nucleus.
The Cell Cycle
- G-0 (Resting stage): Cell performs its everyday activities specific to its type (metabolism, contraction, etc.). Cells spend most of their lives in this phase.
- G-1 (Growth Stage): First step after receiving the signal to divide; the cell synthesizes RNA, proteins, and components needed for DNA duplication.
- S (Synthesis): Cell duplicates its DNA.
- G-2 (Pre-mitotic phase): Cell produces additional proteins and components necessary for cell division (mitosis).
- M (Mitosis): Cell undergoes mitosis (prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase), resulting in the splitting of one cell into two identical daughter cells.
Cell Proliferation & Cell Differentiation
- Cell proliferation: Cells multiply through mitosis, allowing the body to grow, repair, and replace cells. This process is tightly regulated to ensure cells divide only when necessary.
- Cell differentiation: The process by which a cell becomes more specialized with distinct functions, ensuring cells can perform specific functions needed for an organism's survival.
- Stem cells: Special cells with the ability to develop into various cell types. They receive signals during differentiation, guiding them to become a specific type of cell.
- Stem cell research: Explores the potential to repair and regenerate damaged tissues and organs through controlled stem cell differentiation. This opens up potential therapies for conditions like Parkinson's disease, heart disease, and spinal cord injuries.
Cell Types: Labile, Stable, & Permanent
- Labile cells: Constantly dividing and replacing lost cells. Examples include skin cells and intestinal epithelial cells.
- Stable cells: Don't divide under normal conditions but can be stimulated to divide after injury. Examples include hepatocytes (liver cells) and liver regeneration.
- Permanent cells: Lack regenerative ability. Examples include cardiac, neural, and skeletal cells. This lack of regeneration contributes to reduced cardiac capacity after a heart attack.
Tissues: Four Basic Types
- Epithelial tissue: Lines all internal and external surfaces of the body.
- Muscular tissue: Specialized for contraction, enabling movement and force generation in the body.
- Connective tissue: Supports, connects, or separates different tissues and organs.
- Nervous tissue: Specialized for transmitting electrical impulses to coordinate bodily functions, facilitating communication between body parts.
Cellular Adaptation: Atrophy & Hypertrophy
- Cellular adaptation: A cell's ability to adjust to stimuli and challenging environmental conditions that threaten its structure or function.
- Stimuli: Can be physiological (e.g., breast development during pregnancy) or pathological (e.g., aging)
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Atrophy: Decrease in cell size, leading to degeneration of tissue.
- Occurs due to a reduction in cell content, resulting in lower oxygen consumption.
- Example: Muscle atrophy from disuse.
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Hypertrophy: Enlargement of cells, increasing in size and functional components.
- Cells adapt to work demands or threats to survival by changing in size.
- Example: Bigger muscles have more ATP, actin, and myosin filaments.
Chemotherapy: Antineoplastic Pharmacotherapy
- Goal of antineoplastic pharmacotherapy: To kill the majority of cancer cells and allow the immune system to complete the process.
- Challenge: Targeting only neoplastic cells without harming healthy cells.
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Three main approaches:
- Cure: Targeting small, localized tumors for greater chances of success.
- Control: Preventing tumor growth and spread to extend the client's life.
- Palliation: Shrinking a tumor to alleviate pain and symptoms, improving the patient's quality of life.
The Cell Cycle and Antineoplastics
- Chemotherapy drugs are less effective on cells in the resting phase (G-0).
- Debulking a tumor (surgically removing part) can enhance the efficacy of chemotherapy drugs by forcing remaining cells into active phases of mitosis where they are more vulnerable.
Antineoplastic Agents: Cycle-Specific and Non-Cycle-Specific
- Cycle-specific drugs: Target specific phases of the cell cycle.
- Non-cycle-specific drugs: Can kill cancer cells at any stage of the cell cycle.
- Alkylating drugs: Non-cycle specific, target DNA formation and repair. Example: Nitrogen mustards and cyclophosphamide.
- Anti-metabolites: Interrupt the S-phase (DNA synthesis) of the cell cycle.
Cancer Treatment Modalities: Surgery, Radiation, & Chemotherapy
- Surgery: Used to remove tumors.
- Radiation therapy: Delivers high-energy radiation to kill cancer cells.
- Chemotherapy: Uses drugs to kill cancer cells.
Side Effects of Cancer Treatment
- Common side effects: Pain, inflammation, anemia, bone marrow suppression, fatigue/malaise, nausea/vomiting, alopecia (hair loss), risk of infection, hematomas (bruising), hemorrhage, radiodermatitis (inflammation of skin from radiation), risk of atelectasis (lung collapse), pneumonia, hypoxia (low oxygen levels), risk of DVT (deep vein thrombosis), and extravasation (drug leaking out of blood vessels).
Cancer Cell Resistance: Mechanisms & Approaches
- Primary resistance: Cancer cells are inherently resistant to a particular drug.
- Acquired resistance: Cancer cells develop resistance to a drug after initial treatment.
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Mechanisms of resistance:
- Reduced drug uptake
- Enhanced regenerative enzyme production (repairing DNA)
- Altered enzymatic function
- Deactivation of the drug
- Cross-resistance: Resistance to one drug can lead to resistance to other chemically similar drugs.
- Multi-drug/treatment approach: Using a combination of drugs aims to enhance efficacy and decrease resistance.
Nursing Considerations: Cytotoxic Precautions
- Cytotoxic substances: Damage or kill cells and tissues.
- Nurses must follow safety measures: Minimize their exposure to cytotoxic drugs and waste (urine, feces, vomit).
- Chemotherapy can remain in the body for 3-7 days.
- Personal Protective Equipment (PPE): Gloves, gowns, mask, and eye protection as needed.
- Safe administration: Use infusion pumps and equipment to prevent spills or leaks.
- Environmental cleaning: Thorough cleaning of surfaces and equipment after drug administration using appropriate cleaning agents.
- Spill management: Follow protocols for containment, cleanup of any drug spills, and emergency procedures for accidental exposure.
- Cytotoxic waste disposal: Dispose of cytotoxic waste in designated hazardous waste containers, following institutional and regulatory guidelines.
- Hand hygiene: Wash hands thoroughly after handling cytotoxic drugs or potentially contaminated materials.
- Pregnant women: Not allowed to handle cytotoxic drugs.
Lifespan Considerations: Children & Adolescents
- Developmental stage influences reaction to illness.
- Positive relationships with staff are important.
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Long-term effects of chemotherapy:
- Cardiomyopathy
- Hearing loss
- Cataracts and other eye problems
- Learning disabilities
- Infertility
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Long-term effects of radiation:
- Impaired growth of bones and teeth
- Hypothyroidism (from head and neck radiation)
- Delayed puberty and sterility
- Impaired neurocognitive performance
- Cancer treatment can predispose to secondary cancers.
- Survivors may have higher rates of depression and suicidal ideation.
- Nurses can emphasize hope and purpose in life for survivors.
- Parents: Make treatment decisions, gather resources to support their child, and adjust their lives to integrate the needs of their child with cancer.
Lifespan Considerations: Pregnant Women
- Some cancers can spread to the placenta; most cannot spread to the fetus.
- Delayed diagnosis may occur in pregnant women.
- Screenings for specific cancers are recommended.
Lifespan Considerations: Older Adults
- Risks and benefits of cancer screening must be considered.
- Screenings for specific cancers are recommended for adults with a life expectancy greater than 10 years.
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Description
This quiz covers key concepts surrounding epidemics and pandemics, as well as the fundamental structure and function of cells. You will explore the differences between these disease outbreaks and the components that make up a cell, including the cell membrane, nucleus, and cytoplasm. Test your understanding of these essential biological and public health topics.
