238 Questions
What is the primary reason behind the limitation of replication in mammalian cells?
Intrinsic program that limits replication
What is the result of telomere shortening over time in normal cells?
Senescence
Which of the following proteins plays a key role in the regulation of apoptosis?
Bcl-2
What is the outcome of acquired resistance to apoptosis in tumors?
Immortalization
Which of the following caspases is responsible for activating the cell death program?
Caspase 8
What is the result of inactivation of the p53 tumor suppressor protein?
Resistance to apoptosis
What is responsible for 90% of cancer deaths?
Metastasis
Which of the following cell adhesion molecules is lost in many epithelial cancers?
E-cadherin
Which growth factor stimulates vascular endothelial cells to create new vessels inside the tumor?
Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor
What ensures normal tissue homeostasis?
Cell adhesion molecules
What is a hallmark of most malignant cancers?
Ability to metastasize
Which of the following is a characteristic of tumor heterogeneity?
Activation of extracellular proteases
What is the term used when tumor growth is primarily dependent upon a specific oncogene activity?
Oncogene addiction
Which growth factor receptor is often structurally altered in lung cancer, making it continuously active without ligand?
Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor (EGFR)
What is the type of signaling where a tumor cell synthesizes more growth factor to activate its own receptors?
Autocrine signaling
Which of the following is NOT a type of signaling where a tumor manipulates surrounding tissue to synthesize growth factor to stimulate tumor growth?
Autocrine signaling
What is the term used to describe the process of new blood vessel formation that is often stimulated by vascular endothelial growth factor receptor (VEGFR)?
Angiogenesis
Which of the following receptors is often elevated in breast cancer, leading to hyper-responsive growth factor receptor pathways?
Human Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor 2 (HER2)
What is the result of the tyrosine kinase activity of the ABL in the 'Philadelphia chromosome'?
It is not regulated
What is the primary function of tumor suppressor proteins?
To inhibit cell growth and promote cell death
Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of oncogenes?
They are inherently cancer-causing
What is the result of the loss of function of the ATM protein?
Unregulated cell growth and cell survival
What is the name of the gene that is deleted in colon cancer, leading to the loss of a tumor suppressor function?
p53
Which of the following is an example of a chromosomal translocation leading to cancer?
Chromosomal translocation t(9;22) leading to the 'Philadelphia chromosome'
Which receptor is involved in sustaining proliferative signal in breast cancer?
Estrogen Receptor (ER)
What is the outcome of Cyclin and CDK expression in growth factor and hormone signaling?
Cell cycle progression
What is the classification of c-myc in the context of tumor development?
Oncogene
What is the role of PTEN in the context of tumor development?
Tumor suppressor
Which of the following receptors is involved in sustaining proliferative signals in prostate cancer?
Androgen Receptor (AR)
What is the outcome of increased expression of Cyclin D and E in growth factor and hormone signaling?
Cell cycle progression
Which of the following growth factors is NOT primarily involved in angiogenesis?
Epidermal growth factor (EGF)
Blocking which of the following receptors would most likely inhibit angiogenesis and tumor growth?
Vascular endothelial growth factor receptor (VEGFR)
What is the primary function of sustained angiogenesis in tumor growth?
To sustain growth of primary tumor
Which of the following is a characteristic of sustained angiogenesis in tumor growth?
Sustained growth of primary tumor
Which of the following growth factors is involved in the regulation of angiogenesis and is synthesized by the hypoxic tumor?
Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)
What is the result of blocking angiogenesis in tumor growth?
Tumor growth is inhibited
Which of the following is a consequence of sustained angiogenesis in tumor growth?
Facilitation of metastasis
What is the role of angiogenic growth factors in tumor growth?
To sustain angiogenesis
Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of angiogenic growth factors?
They are involved in the regulation of apoptosis
What is the consequence of tumor heterogeneity on angiogenesis?
It leads to heterogeneous angiogenesis
What is the primary function of HER2 status in breast cancer?
Predicting tumor aggressiveness
According to the TNM staging system, what does the 'M' category represent?
Distant metastasis
What is the primary role of proliferation markers in breast cancer diagnosis?
Evaluating tumor cell growth rate
In the TNM staging system, what is the significance of Stage IIA?
Tumor is smaller than 2 cm and has not invaded lymph nodes
What is the primary function of tumor type and grade in breast cancer diagnosis?
Evaluating the aggressiveness of cancer cells
According to the TNM staging system, what is the difference between Stage IIIA and Stage IIIB?
Lymph node involvement is greater in Stage IIIA
What is the primary role of lymphatic/vascular invasion in breast cancer diagnosis?
Predicting metastatic potential
According to the 5-year survival rates, what is the prognosis for patients with Stage IV breast cancer?
Poor prognosis
What is the approximate relative risk of post-menopausal obesity in breast cancer?
1.2
What is the estimated number of new breast cancer cases in 2023?
290,790
What is the primary purpose of excisional biopsy in breast cancer diagnosis?
To remove the entire tumor and abnormal tissue
What percentage of patients have localized disease at the time of diagnosis?
61%
What is the estimated number of deaths due to breast cancer in 2023?
43,170
What is the lifetime risk of developing breast cancer?
1 in 8
What is the classification of a tumor that is ≤2 cm in size according to the TNM system?
T1
What is the significance of HER2 overexpression in breast cancer?
It indicates a worse prognosis
What is the recommended frequency for clinical breast exams (CBE) for women aged 40 and above?
Every year
What is the purpose of estrogen receptor (ER) and progesterone receptor (PR) status testing in breast cancer?
To guide treatment decisions
What is the age at which breast self-exams (BSE) are recommended with a risk/benefit discussion?
Age 20
What is the ranking of breast cancer as a cause of cancer death?
2nd most common
What is the significance of a bone scan in breast cancer diagnosis?
It is used to diagnose metastatic disease
What is the trend in deaths due to breast cancer?
Declining
What is the primary significance of alcohol consumption as a risk factor for breast cancer?
It increases the risk of breast cancer
What is the age at which mammography is recommended as a screening tool?
Age 40
What is the main characteristic of basal-like subtype breast cancer?
Strong link between BRCA1 mutations or impaired BRCA1 DNA repair pathway
What is the 5-year survival rate for a patient with a tumor size less than 2 cm and negative lymph nodes?
96%
What is the term used to describe the presence of more than 10 positive lymph nodes?
High risk
What is the treatment option for a patient with Stage IV breast cancer?
Chemotherapy and/or hormonal therapy to extend disease-free progression and overall survival
What is the risk factor for basal-like subtype breast cancer that has a stronger impact than luminal breast cancer?
Waist-to-hip ratio
What is the percentage of women with ER+ breast cancer?
75%
What is the characteristic of HER2+ breast cancer?
Accounts for approximately 20-25% of breast cancers
What is the treatment option for a patient with early-stage breast cancer?
Surgery followed by adjuvant systemic therapy
What is the lifetime risk of breast cancer for individuals with a BRCA1 or BRCA2 gene mutation?
45% or greater
Which of the following is a risk factor for breast cancer?
Early menarche
What is the approximate risk of breast cancer in women with a first-degree relative (mother) with a history of breast cancer?
5-10%
What is the primary reason for screening MRI in conjunction with mammograms in high-risk patients?
To detect breast cancer at an early stage
Which of the following is a risk factor for breast cancer in women over 60 years old?
All of the above
What is the approximate risk of breast cancer in women with a 2nd degree relative (aunt) with a history of breast cancer?
1.4%
Which of the following is NOT a risk factor for breast cancer?
Exercise
What is the purpose of radiation to the chest in breast cancer treatment?
To treat breast cancer
What is the primary benefit of digital rectal exam (DRE) in prostate cancer screening?
High specificity
Which of the following groups is at high risk for prostate cancer and recommended to start screening at 45 years of age?
Men with a first-degree relative, African American
What is the significance of PSA level > 10 ng/mL in prostate cancer screening?
It is suspicious for malignancy
What is the recommended frequency of prostate cancer screening for men with a PSA level < 2.5 ng/mL?
Every 2 years
What is the primary function of prostate specific antigen (PSA) in prostate cancer screening?
All of the above
What percentage of men with clinically significant prostate cancer will not have an elevated PSA level?
38%-48%
Which of the following is a controversy regarding prostate cancer screening?
The benefit of screening in men > 75 years of age
What is the recommended age to start prostate cancer screening for men with average risk?
50 years of age
What is the significance of a PSA level of 0-4 ng/mL in prostate cancer screening?
It is within the normal range
What is the recommended frequency of prostate cancer screening for men with a PSA level > 2.5 ng/mL?
Every year
What is the estimated number of new prostate cancer cases in 2023?
288,300
What is the median age of diagnosis for prostate cancer?
66 years
What is the risk factor associated with a 5-10% familial predisposition to prostate cancer?
All of the above
Which of the following racial groups has the highest rate of prostate cancer worldwide?
Men of African descent
What is the increased risk factor associated with smoking in prostate cancer?
Fatal prostate cancer
What is the hormone associated with an increased risk of prostate cancer?
Elevated levels of testosterone
What is the percentage of men who will be diagnosed with prostate cancer during their lifetime?
1 in 8
What is the estimated number of deaths due to prostate cancer in 2023?
34,700
What is the ratio of prostate cancer death rates in African-American men compared to white men?
2:1
What is the most common site of distant metastasis in prostate cancer?
Bone
What is the risk factor associated with an increased risk of prostate cancer due to a sexually transmitted infection (STI)?
All of the above
What is the primary purpose of a Digital Rectal Exam (DRE) in prostate cancer screening?
To detect nodules or irregularities in the prostate
What is the significance of a Gleason score of 7-10 in prostate cancer?
Poorly differentiated tumor with poor prognosis
What is the purpose of a bone scan in prostate cancer diagnosis?
To identify bone metastases
What is the 5-year survival rate for patients with localized prostate cancer?
Almost 100%
What is the primary advantage of early detection and diagnosis of prostate cancer?
All of the above
What is the role of PSA levels in prostate cancer screening?
To identify high-risk individuals
What is the primary risk factor for prostate cancer?
Age
What is the purpose of a Transrectal Ultrasound (TRUS) in prostate cancer diagnosis?
To guide biopsy procedures
What is the significance of a positive DRE in prostate cancer diagnosis?
Presence of nodules or irregularities in the prostate
What is the estimated 5-year survival rate for patients with localized colorectal cancer?
65%
What is the primary reason for the association of red meat with an increased risk of colorectal cancer?
Bacterial degradation and fermentation
According to the NCCN guidelines, what is the recommended age for colon cancer screening for individuals with average risk?
50 years
What is the percentage of colorectal cancer cases associated with smoking?
20%
What is the approximate number of new colorectal cancer cases estimated to occur in 2024?
106,590
What is the median age of diagnosis for colorectal cancer?
68 years
What is the approximate number of annual deaths due to colorectal cancer in 2024?
53,010
What is the primary risk factor for colorectal cancer that is associated with a stronger impact than lifestyle factors?
Family history
What is the term used to describe the process of new blood vessel formation that is often stimulated by vascular endothelial growth factor receptor (VEGFR)?
Angiogenesis
What is the percentage of colorectal cancer cases that are associated with genetic mutations?
20%
In approximately what percentage of colorectal cancers are KRAS gene mutations found?
35% - 45%
Which of the following genes is associated with Lynch Syndrome and is more responsive to immune therapy?
MLH1, MSH2, or MSH6
What is the 5-year overall survival rate for patients with Stage I colorectal cancer?
93%
What is the primary goal of therapy for patients with Stage IVA colorectal cancer?
Conversion to resectable disease
What is the expected median survival time for patients with metastatic colorectal cancer?
24+ months
Which of the following genes is a tumor suppressor and is the most common gene mutation in sporadic and familial/inherited colorectal cancer?
APC
What is the primary benefit of EGFR inhibitors in the treatment of colorectal cancer?
Reduced resistance to targeted therapy
Which of the following colorectal cancer stages is characterized by tumor size T4a, nodal involvement N0, and metastasis M0?
Stage IIB
What is the estimated percentage of patients with colorectal cancer who are diagnosed at a localized stage?
40%
Which of the following is a prognostic factor for patients with colorectal cancer?
All of the above
What is the increased risk of adenomatous polyps associated with?
Heavy drinkers of alcohol
What is the primary role of carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA) in colon cancer management?
Surveillance and prognostic tool
What is the percentage of colon cancers that occur in the rectosigmoid colon?
25%
What is the recommended diagnostic work-up for colon cancer?
Initial digital rectal exam (DRE) and then colonoscopy
What is the significance of a KRAS mutation in colon cancer?
It is a predictor of response to EGFR inhibitors
What is the primary site of metastasis in colon cancer?
Liver
What is the significance of an increase in carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA) levels during colon cancer surveillance?
It may signify early recurrence or relapse
What is the distribution of colon cancers in the descending colon?
12%
What is the role of lymph node biopsy in the staging of colon cancer?
To determine the number of involved lymph nodes
What is the significance of a poorly differentiated adenocarcinoma in colon cancer?
It is associated with a poor prognosis
What is the estimated number of deaths from lung cancer in 2024 in the United States?
125,070
What is the 5-year survival rate for Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer (NSCLC)?
28%
What is the median age of diagnosis for lung cancer?
70
What is the risk of lung cancer for a woman?
1 in 17
What is the most common risk factor for developing lung cancer?
Smoking/Tobacco use
What is the name of the syndrome characterized by ectopic ACTH production in lung cancer?
Cushing's Syndrome
What is the term for the development of different mutations in lung cancer cells?
Heterogeneity
What is the term for the blockage of the superior vena cava by lung cancer?
SVC obstruction
What is the term for the production of excessive hormone-like substances in lung cancer?
Paraneoplastic syndrome
What is the primary goal of therapy for patients with Limited Stage SCLC?
Cure with a 5-year survival rate of roughly 60%
What is the significance of Nodal Involvement in NSCLC staging?
It determines the extent of lymph node involvement
What is the treatment approach for patients with Metastatic NSCLC who are EGFR positive?
EGFR Inhibitor
What is the role of biopsy in the diagnostic work-up of lung cancer?
To determine the pathology of the disease
What is the staging system used for SCLC?
Limited and Extensive Stage classification
What is the primary goal of therapy for patients with Advanced Stage NSCLC?
Symptom relief and palliation
What is the significance of Tumor Size in NSCLC staging?
It determines the stage of the disease
What is the treatment approach for patients with Metastatic NSCLC who are ALK positive?
ALK Inhibitor
What is the role of Pulmonary Function Tests (PFTs) in the diagnostic work-up of lung cancer?
To evaluate the lung function
What is the estimated number of new cases of Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia (CLL) in adults?
20,700
Which of the following is a risk factor for Acute Myeloid Leukemia (AML)?
All of the above
What is a common symptom of acute leukemia?
All of the above
Which of the following is a risk factor for leukemia?
All of the above
What is the estimated number of deaths from leukemia in 2024?
23,000
What is the genetic susceptibility associated with an increased risk of developing ALL?
All of the above
Which of the following diagnostic tests is used to detect cell surface markers in ALL?
Flow cytometry
What is a predisposing environmental factor associated with an increased risk of developing ALL?
All of the above
What is the purpose of a lumbar puncture in the diagnosis of ALL?
To determine the presence of leukemia cells in the cerebrospinal fluid
What is the significance of age as a prognostic factor in ALL?
Age is a favourable factor
What is the primary characteristic of nodal involvement in Hodgkin's Lymphoma?
Localized to single axial group of nodes
What is the common clinical manifestation of Hodgkin's Lymphoma?
Enlarged painless lymph node often in the neck
What is the significance of B symptoms in Hodgkin's Lymphoma?
Poor prognosis
What is the common site of involvement in Hodgkin's Lymphoma?
Cervical, axillary, inguinal, and retroperitoneal lymph nodes
What is the primary difference between NHL and HL in terms of nodal involvement?
NHL involves multiple peripheral lymph nodes, while HL involves a single axial group of nodes
Which of the following genetic risk factors is most commonly associated with Non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma?
EBV
What is the primary diagnostic method for confirming a diagnosis of Non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma?
LN Biopsy
Which of the following symptoms is commonly associated with advanced Non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma?
Night sweats
What is the primary environmental risk factor associated with the development of Non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma?
Exposure to a variety of mutagenic chemicals
Which of the following subtypes of Non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma is typically aggressive?
Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma
What is the approximate median age of diagnosis for Hodgkin's lymphoma?
39 years
What is the estimated number of new cases of Non-Hodgkin's lymphoma expected in 2024?
80,620
What is the approximate median age of diagnosis for Multiple Myeloma?
69 years
What is the estimated number of new cases of Hodgkin's lymphoma expected in 2024?
8,570
What is the estimated number of deaths from Non-Hodgkin's lymphoma expected in 2024?
20,140
Which of the following chromosomal translocations is associated with Burkitt's lymphoma?
t(8;14)
What is the primary factor that determines the treatment approach for non-Hodgkin lymphoma?
Stage of the disease
What is the most common age range for diagnosis of multiple myeloma?
65 years old and above
What is the significance of the NPM-ALK fusion protein in anaplastic large T-/null-cell lymphoma?
It acts as a tyrosine kinase
What is the primary difference between Stage I and Stage II non-Hodgkin lymphoma?
Involvement of a single lymph node versus involvement of multiple lymph nodes
What is the primary cause of Non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma?
Congenital or viral immune deficiency
What is the role of therapeutic antibodies in treating Hodgkin's Lymphoma?
To provide additional support to the immune system
What is the significance of karyotypic abnormalities in Non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma?
They involve an immunoglobulin heavy chain gene locus
What is the goal of salvage chemotherapy in treating Hodgkin's Lymphoma?
To treat relapsed or refractory disease
What is the 5-year survival rate for patients with advanced Hodgkin's Lymphoma?
71%
What is the role of autologous stem cell transplant in treating relapsed or refractory disease?
To follow salvage chemotherapy
What is the primary factor that determines the outcome of Hodgkin's Lymphoma treatment?
Age of the patient
What is the significance of immunoglobulin heavy chain gene locus in Non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma?
It is associated with monoclonal expansion of T or B cells
What is the role of radiation therapy in treating early-stage Hodgkin's Lymphoma?
To combine with chemotherapy
What is the significance of somatic gene rearrangements in Non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma?
They occur during cellular differentiation
What is the primary function of apocrine sweat glands?
To produce cerumen
What is the characteristic of eccrine sweat glands?
They produce true sweat that is 99% water
What is the term for the intracellular epidermal edema that occurs in inflammatory skin disorders?
Spongiosis
What is the name of the biologic drug approved to treat chronic hives in patients at least 12 years of age?
Omalizumab
What is the primary function of arrector pili?
To provide smooth muscle tone
What is the primary treatment for hives and angioedema?
Identifying and removing the trigger
What is the structure that surrounds the medulla in a hair shaft?
Cortex
Which of the following glands is responsible for producing sebum?
Sebaceous gland
What is the daily rate of sweat production in humans?
500 cc to 12 l
Where are hair follicles found on the human body?
Everywhere except palms and soles
What is the primary reason for excess sebum production in acne-prone skin?
Hyperactivity of 5-alpha reductase
What is the primary function of the stratum granulosum layer in the epidermis?
To produce keratin and provide strength to the skin
Which of the following structures is most commonly affected by acne?
Pilosebaceous units
Which of the following pigments is responsible for the pink color of light skin?
Hemoglobin
What is the result of the rupture of pressurized follicles in the dermis?
Tender deep nodulocystic acne
What is the role of Propionibacterium acnes in acne development?
It infects the clogged pilosebaceous units
What is the primary function of the dermal papillae in the skin?
To anchor the skin to the underlying tissue and regulate skin texture
What is the name of the layer of skin that lies underneath the epidermis and is composed of strong, flexible connective tissue?
Dermis
At what age can women typically experience their first acne outbreak?
20-35 years
What is the function of the areolar connective tissue in the hypodermis?
To store fat and anchor the skin to the underlying tissue
What is the primary function of an anti-IgE antibody in severe hive or angioedema outbreaks?
To prevent mast cell degranulation
What is the characteristic histological feature of atopic dermatitis?
Intercellular edema within the epidermis
Which of the following cytokines is released by keratinocytes in atopic dermatitis?
IL-1
What is the effect of Th2 cells in atopic dermatitis?
Barrier dysfunction
What is the characteristic of Superficial BCC?
Pink or red scaly patch with raised edge
What is the common site of involvement for Nodular BCC?
Face
What is the primary mechanism by which atopic dermatitis leads to itch symptoms?
Release of IL-33
What is the significance of telangiectasia in Nodular BCC?
It crosses the edge of the lesion
Which of the following treatments is highly effective for Superficial BCCs?
Imiquimod 5% cream
What is the cellular origin of Cutaneous Squamous Cell Carcinoma (cSCC)?
Keratinocytes in the epidermis
What is a characteristic of telangiectasia in acne rosacea?
Small dilated capillaries near skin surface
What is the primary consequence of demodex proliferation in acne rosacea?
Disruption of the epidermal barrier
What is the role of LL-37 in acne rosacea pathophysiology?
Stimulation of tissue inflammation and vasodilation
What is the association between heat and stress in acne rosacea?
Release of various neuromodulators
What is the age of onset for acne rosacea?
30-50 years
What is a characteristic of affected individuals with acne rosacea?
Flush easily
What is the role of Th1 and Th17-mediated immune reactions in acne rosacea?
Affecting inflammation in rosacea
What is the consequence of Erdr1 upregulation in acne rosacea?
Increased IL-18 expression
What is the primary mechanism of KLK-5 in acne rosacea?
Disruption of the epidermal barrier
What is the association between demodex and ultraviolet radiation in acne rosacea?
Increased TLR-2 expression
Learn about the hallmarks of malignant cancers, including metastasis and its role in cancer deaths. Understand the importance of cell adhesion molecules, such as E-cadherin, in anchoring cells to adjacent tissue and their loss in epithelial cancers.
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