Biology Midterm Exam Study Guide

Biology Midterm Exam - Study Guide

Quarter 1 - Introduction to Biology and Lab Report Format:
- Raw Data: The unprocessed, original measurements or observations.
- Hypothesis: A testable explanation or prediction for an observation.
- Variable: A factor that can change in an experiment.
- Theory: A well-substantiated explanation of some aspect of the natural world, based on a body of facts that have been repeatedly confirmed through observation and experiment.
- Research Question: A question that can be investigated through research.
- Characteristics of Living Things: Specific characteristics that define life forms, such as organization, metabolism, reproduction, growth, adaptation, response to stimuli, homeostasis.
- Homeostasis: The maintenance of a stable internal environment
- Molecules: Groups of atoms bonded together.
- Metric System: Importance of the metric system in research experiments for consistent and precise measurements.
Quarter 1 – Chemistry of Life:
- Protons: Positively charged subatomic particles found in the nucleus of an atom.
- Neutrons: Neutral subatomic particles found in the nucleus of an atom.
- Electrons: Negatively charged subatomic particles orbiting the nucleus.
- Compound: A substance formed when two or more different elements combine chemically.
- Valence Electrons: Electrons in the outermost shell of an atom, important for chemical bonding.
- pH Scale: A measure of acidity or alkalinity of a solution, with a range of 0-14. Examples: acid (below 7), neutral (7), base (above 7).
- Atoms: The basic building blocks of matter.
- Product (Chemical Reaction): The substance(s) formed as a result of a chemical reaction.
- Reactants (Chemical Reaction): The substance(s) that participate in a chemical reaction.
- CO2 + H2O → H2CO3: Chemical reaction in which carbon dioxide reacts with water to produce carbonic acid, reactants are carbon dioxide and water, product is carbonic acid. Activation energy needed for the reaction to proceed.
- Activation Energy: The minimum amount of energy required for a reaction to occur.
- Enzyme: A biological catalyst that speeds up chemical reactions in living organisms.
Quarter 1 - Cells:
- Cell Theory: Fundamental concept of biology stating that all living organisms are composed of cells; cells are the basic unit of structure and function in organisms; cells arise from pre-existing cells .
- Electron Microscope: A type of microscope that uses a beam of electrons to produce magnified images, offering higher resolution than light microscopes.
- Nucleus: A membrane-bound organelle that contains the cell's genetic material (DNA).
- Lysosomes: Organelles that contain enzymes used to break down cellular waste
- Ribosomes: Cell organelles responsible for protein synthesis.
- Cell Membrane (Phospholipid Bilayer): The outer boundary of a cell, a selectively permeable structure, that controls what enters and leaves the cell.
- Active Transport: Movement of molecules across a cell membrane against their concentration gradient, requiring energy.
- Endocytosis: Taking material into the cell by enclosing it in a portion of the cell membrane.
- Exocytosis: Release of material from the cell by fusing a vesicle with the cell membrane.
- Prokaryote vs. Eukaryote: Comparing and contrasting the two types of cells regarding structure, organization, complexity.
Quarter 2 - Cellular Respiration and Photosynthesis:
- Heterotroph: An organism that obtains energy by consuming other organisms.
- Autotroph: An organism that obtains energy from sunlight to produce its own food.
- Electron Carriers: Molecules responsible for carrying electrons in cellular respiration and photosynthesis (e.g., NADH, FADH2)
- Products of Photosynthesis: Glucose, oxygen.
- Waste Products of Photosynthesis: Water can be a waste product.
- Photosynthesis: Process by which plants and other organisms use sunlight to synthesize foods with the help of carbon dioxide and water.
- Cellular Respiration: Process by which cells break down glucose to release energy (ATP).
- Glycolysis: The first stage of cellular respiration, breaking down glucose into pyruvate.
- Steps for Cellular Respiration Glycolysis, Krebs and electron transport chain.
- Products & Waste Products of Cellular Respiration. ATP, carbon dioxide, water are the main products and waste.
- Aerobic Respiration: The process of cellular respiration that requires oxygen.
- Glycolysis: The initial stage of ATP production in cellular respiration.
- Krebs Cycle: A series of reactions that produces energy-carrying molecules, involving a cyclical series of chemical reactions.
- Electron Transport Chain: A series of electron carriers that generate a large amount of ATP.
- Lactic Acid Fermentation: Anaerobic process producing lactic acid from glucose in muscle cells without oxygen.
Quarter 2 - Cellular Division:
- Interphase: The stage of the cell cycle where a cell grows, replicates its DNA, and prepares for division.
- M phase: Mitosis and Cytokinesis
- Mitosis: The division of the nucleus of a eukaryotic cell and results in two new nuclei that are genetically identical. (Includes the different phases: Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase.)
- Cytokinesis: The division of the cytoplasm of a cell, resulting in two daughter cells.
- Meiosis: Cell division process that produces genetically diverse gametes.
- Meiosis: The process of cell division where the chromosome number is reduced by half.
- Apoptosis: Programmed cell death
- Central Dogma of Protein Synthesis: DNA → RNA → Protein
- DNA Nucleotides and Pairing: Describing the structure and nitrogenous base pairing of DNA nucleotides.
- RNA Nucleotides and Pairing: Describing the structure and pairing of RNA nucleotides.
Quarter 2 - Genetics:
- Alleles: Different forms of a gene.
- Heterozygous: Having two different alleles for a gene.
- Homozygous: Having two identical alleles for a gene.
- Punnett Square: A diagram used to predict the possible genotypes of offspring in a genetic cross.
- Genotype: The genetic makeup of an organism.
- Phenotype: The observable physical traits of an organism.
- Ratios: Relative proportions of possible offspring genotypes or phenotypes
- Probability: likelihood of a certain genotype or phenotype.
- Codominance: Both alleles for a gene are expressed in a heterozygote
- Incomplete Dominance: One allele doesn't completely mask the other, resulting in a blended phenotype; intermediate phenotype appears.
- Diploid: Having two sets of chromosomes.
- Haploid: Having one set of chromosomes.
- Pedigree: A diagram of family relationships that helps track a certain genetic trait over generations.